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FORTIFICATION OF GARRI WITH MICRONUTRIENTS: STABILITY AND BIOAVAILABILITY STUDIES IN ENUGU STATE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Garri is a granular, partially pre-cooked and fermented form of cassava, which is one of the most important staple foods in Nigeria, especially in the South-East geopolitical zone, such as Enugu State. Derived mainly from cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), garri is a staple food consumed by millions of households across the socioeconomic spectrum as eba (cooked in hot water), soaked with cold water or as a dry snack. Its cheapness, extended shelf life and simplicity in preparation render it a staple food security item, particularly among the poor (Ekpe et al., 2022).

However, despite its energy value, garri is a poor source of micronutrients. The intricate processing of cassava (peeling, grating, fermenting, pressing, sieving, and roasting) leads to substantial losses of naturally present vitamins and minerals. Garri is naturally low in protein, iron, zinc, vitamin A, and vitamin B complex (especially thiamine and riboflavin) and calcium micrnutrients required for growth and development, immune function, brain function, and prevention of nutrition sensitive non-communicable diseases (Nwosu & Ogugua, 2021). In Enugu State where garri is estimated to provide substantial proportion of the total daily energy intake for populations at risk of malnutrition such as children and pregnant women, this micronutrient chemical profile fuels malnutrition.

Food fortification – defined by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) as the addition of one or more nutrients to foods to improve nutritional quality (WHO/FAO, 2022) – is an internationally recognised, well validated, and cost-effective approach to combating hidden hunger populations dependent on staple foods (WHO, 2023). This includes the fortification of garri with iron, zinc, vitamin A, and B vitamins, which has attracted growing research interest; but important questions remain around the stability of added micronutrients during the heat processing of garri and how the micronutrients are made available to the human body through ingestion. This research seeks to address these knowledge gaps from both the standpoint of the food systems in Enugu State.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Micronutrient-poor garri consumption in Enugu State gives rise to many health issues ranging from iron-deficiency anaemia (estimated to affect 57% of under 5 years children in the state; NPC, 2018), visual impairment from vitamin A deficiency, and zinc-related growth stunting. Micronutrient supplementation and dietary diversification strategies have been partially successful, but the fortification of staple foods, especially garri, extends a more viable population-based, and easy-to-implement, approach that does not rely on behavioural change.

But the science of garri fortification is made complex by two considerations: first, the sub-optimal cook-stability of labile micronutrients (such as vitamin A and some B vitamins) under the extreme heat (≥150°C) dry-roasting conditions; and second, the prospect of decreased mineral bioavailability due to the anti-nutrients present in cassava-based products (such as oxalates, phytates and residual cyanogenic glucosides) that bind minerals and hinder their absorption by the gut (Iwe et al., 2023). The lack of information about the stability and bioavailability of the fortified product will not guarantee the efficacy of fortified garri.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

Aim:

To evaluate the stability and bioavailability of micronutrients added to garri produced in Enugu State.

Specific Objectives:

1. To produce garri fortified with iron (ferrous fumarate), vitamin A (retinyl palmitate), zinc (zinc sulphate), and riboflavin at recommended fortification levels.
2. To assess the retention of fortified micronutrients (iron, zinc, vitamin A, and riboflavin) at key processing stages: pre-roasting, immediately post-roasting, and after 4 and 8 weeks of storage.
3. To determine the anti-nutritional factor (phytate, oxalate, and tannin) content of fortified and unfortified garri samples and evaluate their inhibitory effect on micronutrient availability.
4. To evaluate the in vitro bioavailability of iron and zinc in fortified garri using simulated gastrointestinal digestion protocols.
5. To assess the sensory properties (colour, taste, texture, aroma, and overall acceptability) and consumer acceptance of fortified garri among residents of Enugu State.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What is the stability of added micronutrients (iron, zinc, vitamin A, riboflavin) in garri across the roasting process and storage period?
2. How do anti-nutritional factors in garri influence the availability of fortified micronutrients?
3. What is the in vitro bioavailability of iron and zinc in fortified garri produced in Enugu State?
4. Do the sensory properties of fortified garri differ significantly from those of unfortified garri?
5. What is the level of consumer acceptance of micronutrient-fortified garri among households in Enugu State?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This research has direct nutritional implications for people in Enugu State (and Nigeria). The knowledge of successful micronutrient fortification of garri with preserved stability and proven bioavailability will provide the proof of concept for mainstreaming of fortified garri into the Nigeria’s National Food Fortification Programme, which currently targets wheat flour, vegetable oil, sugar, and salt (NAFDAC, 2023). Data from the study will be useful to national regulators (NAFDAC and SON) in developing standards for fortification and quality control of cassava products.

Food scientists and nutritionists will obtain original research data on the thermal stability of micronutrients in high temperature roasted starch products unpavered technological ground. Garri processing facilities and cooperatives in Enugu will find information on selection of food fortification premixes, level, and processing adjustments that help retain micronutrients. Nutrition-sensitive food systems interventions by development organisations such as UNICEF, the World Food Programme and Federal Ministry of Health will benefit from the data for the control of anaemia, vitamin A and zinc deficiency in vulnerable populations.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The study will use garri produced 100% from white cassava (TME 419 variety), and grown in the farms of Igbo-Eze South Local Government Area, Enugu State. Fortification of the micronutrients iron (ferrous fumarate), vitamin A (retinyl palmitate), zinc (zinc sulphate monohydrate) and riboflavin (vitamin B2). Stability will be studied at three stages (at 0, 4 and 8 weeks after roasting) of storage at ambient temperature. In vitro bioavailability will use the Heaney et al. (2001) pepsin-pancreatin digest for iron and zinc dialysability. It will not involve human studies (in vivo bioavailability), cost analyses of fortification, or other micronutrients or cassava varieties.

1.7 Definition of Terms

Garri:

A granular, roasted, fermented cassava product widely consumed across sub-Saharan Africa, produced through the fermentation of grated cassava followed by dewatering, sieving, and dry roasting.

Fortification:

The deliberate addition of one or more essential micronutrients to a food, whether or not they are normally contained in the food, to correct or prevent demonstrated deficiency in the population.

Micronutrient:

Vitamins and minerals required by the body in small quantities for normal growth, development, and metabolic function; deficiency causes specific disease states.

Bioavailability:

The proportion of an ingested nutrient that is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and available for use in physiological functions; influenced by food matrix, anti-nutritional factors, and host factors.

Anti-Nutritional Factors (ANFs):

Naturally occurring compounds in food (e.g., phytates, oxalates, tannins) that interfere with nutrient absorption and digestion by chelating minerals or inhibiting digestive enzymes.

In Vitro Digestion:

A laboratory simulation of gastrointestinal digestion using standardised enzyme solutions (pepsin, pancreatin) and pH conditions to estimate the bioaccessibility of nutrients from food matrices.

Thermal Stability:

The capacity of a micronutrient to resist chemical degradation under the high temperatures encountered during food processing, particularly roasting and boiling.

References

Ekpe, I. I., Udofia, U. S., & Okon, B. D. (2022). Nutritional status of commonly consumed garri in southern Nigeria: A cross-sectional study. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 43(2), 150–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/03795721221090118

Iwe, M. O., Okereke, G. O., & Agiriga, A. N. (2023). Anti-nutritional factors in cassava products and their nutritional implications: A review. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 115, 104872.

National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC). (2023). National food fortification programme: Progress report. Abuja: NAFDAC.

National Population Commission (NPC) and ICF. (2018). Nigeria demographic and health survey 2018. NPC and ICF.

Nwosu, J. N., & Ogugua, V. N. (2021). Nutritional composition of garri from different varieties of cassava and processing methods. African Journal of Food Science, 15(4), 115–126. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJFS2021.2042

World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization (WHO/FAO). (2022). Guidelines on food fortification with micronutrients (2nd ed.). WHO Press.