COMPLETE SCHOOL PROJECT TOPICS & MATERIALS :
CHAPTERS: Chapter 1-5
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Introduction
The term “critical thinking” is used often but it isn’t always properly understood. Put simply, critical thinking means developing reliable, rational evaluations of an argument or idea. Critical thinking is a means for separating truth from falsehood and reasonable from unreasonable beliefs. It frequently involves finding flaws in the arguments of others, but that’s not all that it’s about. It’s not simply about criticizing ideas, it is about developing the ability to think about ideas with greater critical distance. Critical thinking is the objective analysis of facts to form a judgment. The subject is complex, and several different definitions exist, which generally include the rational, skeptical, unbiased analysis, or evaluation of factual evidence. Critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. Its presupposed assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command to their use. It entails effective communication and problem-solving abilities, as well as a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.
History
The earliest documentation of critical thinking are the teachings of Socrates recorded by Plato. Socrates established the fact that one cannot depend upon those in “authority” to have sound knowledge and insight. He demonstrated that persons may have power and high position and yet be deeply confused and irrational. He established the importance of asking deep questions that probe profoundly into thinking before we accept ideas as worthy of belief.
He established the importance of seeking evidence, closely examining reasoning and assumptions, analyzing basic concepts, and tracing out implications not only of what is said but of what is done as well. His method of questioning is now known as “Socratic Questioning” and is the best-known critical thinking teaching strategy. In his mode of questioning, Socrates highlighted the need for thinking for clarity and logical consistency. Socrates asked people questions to reveal their irrational thinking or lack of reliable knowledge. Socrates demonstrated that having authority does not ensure accurate knowledge. He established the method of questioning beliefs, closely inspecting assumptions and relying on evidence and sound rationale. Plato recorded Socrates’ teachings and carried on the tradition of critical thinking. Aristotle and subsequent Greek skeptics refined Socrates’ teachings, using systematic thinking and asking questions to ascertain the true nature of reality beyond the way things appear from a glance.
Socrates set the agenda for the tradition of critical thinking, namely, to reflectively question common beliefs and explanations, carefully distinguishing beliefs that are reasonable and logical from those that—however appealing to our native egocentrism, however much they serve our vested interests, however comfortable or comforting they may be—lack adequate evidence or rational foundation to warrant belief.
Critical thinking was described by Richard W. Paul as a movement in two waves (1994). The “first wave” of critical thinking is often referred to as a ‘critical analysis’ that is clear, rational thinking involving critique. Its details vary amongst those who define it. According to Barry K. Beyer (1995), critical thinking means making clear, reasoned judgments. During the process of critical thinking, ideas should be reasoned, well thought out, and judged. The U.S. National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking defines critical thinking as the “intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.”
Etymology
In the term critical thinking, the word critical, (Grk. κριτικός = kritikos = “critic”) derives from the word critic and implies a critique; it identifies the intellectual capacity and the means “of judging”, “of judgement”, “for judging”, and of being “able to discern”. The intellectual roots of critical thinking are as ancient as its etymology, traceable, ultimately, to the teaching practice and vision of Socrates 2,500 years ago who discovered by a method of probing questioning that people could not rationally justify their confident claims to knowledge.
Definitions
Traditionally, critical thinking has been variously defined as follows:
“The process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information to reach an answer or conclusion” (Critical – Define Critical at Dictionary.com).
“Disciplined thinking that is clear, rational, open-minded, and informed by evidence” (Critical – Define Critical at Dictionary.com).
“Reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do” (SSConceptionCT.html).
“Purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based” (Facione, P. A., 2011).
“Includes a commitment to using reason in the formulation of our beliefs” (Mulnix, J. W., 2010)
The skill and propensity to engage in an activity with reflective scepticism (McPeck, 1981).
Thinking about one’s thinking in a manner designed to organize and clarify, raise the efficiency of, and recognize errors and biases in one’s own thinking. Critical thinking is not ‘hard’ thinking nor is it directed at solving problems (other than ‘improving’ one’s own thinking). Critical thinking is inward-directed with the intent of maximizing the rationality of the thinker. One does not use critical thinking to solve problems—one uses critical thinking to improve one’s process of thinking. (Carmichael, 1997).
“An appraisal based on careful analytical evaluation” (TheFreeDictionary.com).
Contemporary critical thinking scholars have expanded these traditional definitions to include qualities, concepts, and processes such as creativity, imagination, discovery, reflection, empathy, connecting knowing, feminist theory, subjectivity, ambiguity, and inconclusiveness. Some definitions of critical thinking exclude these subjective practices (Walters, K., 1994)
Critical Thinking Examples in the History of the World
- Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was faced with great opposition when he questioned the current beliefs of certain scientific principles of his time. Einstein used critical thinking to challenge and debunk these principles and create more useful ones of his own.
“One of [Einstein’s] greatest intellectual gifts, in small matters as well as great, was to strip off the irrelevant frills from a problem.” – C.P. Snow
- Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin was able to come up with his theories by making connections between certain situations. He used a critical thinking mindset to link seemly unrelated parts of information.
His theory of evolution was a perfect case of questioning and connecting the aspects of his field of study to others.
- Martin Luther King Jr.
Martin Luther King Jr. inspired millions with his speech “I have a dream”. He used the ability of critical thinking to structure his arguments and present his point of view.
- Sir Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton researched, applied, revised, and tested everything he learned thoroughly. This sequence of learning is a great example of a critical thinking mindset.
There are probably thousands of critical thinking examples in your life where you have applied critical thinking to either solving a problem, creating a new perspective, or presenting yourself in a clear and relevant way.