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TEACHER-STUDENT RATIO AND LEARNING OUTCOMES IN OVERCROWDED CLASSROOMS:CASE STUDY OF PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN KADUNA STATE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Abstract

This study examines the impact of teacher-student ratios on learning outcomes in overcrowded public primary classrooms in Kaduna State, Nigeria, employing a mixed-methods approach. Quantitative analysis of literacy and numeracy scores across 40 public primary schools was supplemented by surveys of 450 teachers and qualitative interviews with 60 headteachers and education officials. Findings reveal average ratios of 1:85, significantly exceeding the national standard of 1:35, correlating with 30–45% poorer performance in reading and mathematics compared to schools with more favorable staffing levels. Overcrowding was found to reduce individual attention, exacerbate disciplinary issues, and increase teacher burnout, with rural schools facing ratios surpassing 1:100 while urban schools fared marginally better. Proposed solutions prioritize immediate teacher recruitment, expanded classroom infrastructure, and cluster teaching models, projected to improve learning outcomes by 35–50%.

1.1 Background of the Study

Teacher-student ratio, defined as the average number of pupils assigned to each teacher in a classroom, serves as a critical determinant of instructional quality and learning outcomes globally. Optimal ratios, typically recommended at 1:25–30 for primary education, facilitate individualized attention, active learning through discussion and feedback, timely assessment, and differentiated instruction (UNESCO, 2015; World Bank, 2018). Conversely, high ratios characteristic of overcrowded classrooms constrain these processes, resulting in reduced pupil engagement, superficial content coverage, increased disciplinary problems, and poorer academic performance, with meta-analyses demonstrating significant negative correlations with test scores, retention, and equity (Hanushek & Woessmann, 2020).

Sub-Saharan Africa faces particularly acute challenges, with teacher-student ratios frequently exceeding 1:60 due to rapid population growth, fiscal constraints, and uneven teacher distribution. These conditions foster systemic issues such as higher dropout rates, gender disparities, and widened socioeconomic inequalities in learning (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2022). Elevated ratios perpetuate cycles of underperformance as teachers struggle to manage diverse classrooms, provide meaningful feedback, and address individual learning gaps, ultimately hindering human capital development.

Nigeria’s public primary education system contends with chronic overcrowding fueled by demographic pressures, the Universal Basic Education (UBE) policy’s free and compulsory mandate since 2004, and persistent teacher shortages. The national average ratio stands at 1:47, with northern states experiencing more severe disparities due to enrollment surges outpacing staffing (National Bureau of Statistics, 2022). Kaduna State exemplifies this crisis, with over 4,000 public primary schools serving approximately 2 million pupils. Urban areas in Kaduna metropolis average ratios of 1:70, while rural districts like Zaria, Kauru, and Birnin Gwari frequently exceed 1:100, creating “mega-classes” that strain instructional delivery (Kaduna State Ministry of Education, 2023).

Enrollment in Kaduna surged following the state’s 2015 declaration of free primary education and extensive school construction initiatives, yet teacher recruitment and deployment lagged, resulting in unsustainable class sizes. Overcrowding severely impacts learning processes: limited teacher-pupil interaction impedes comprehension of foundational concepts, excessive noise and distraction disrupt focus, and educators often resort to rote, lecture-based methods unsuitable for young learners. These factors contribute to Kaduna’s persistently low rankings in national assessments such as the National Assessment of Primary Education Performance Standards (NAPEPS), where literacy and numeracy scores trail national averages by 20–30% (Afolabi & Eze, 2023).

Rural-urban disparities intensify these challenges. Rural schools, serving marginalized farming communities, not only endure extreme ratios but also lack basic facilities like desks, blackboards, and textbooks, further diminishing instructional quality and exacerbating inequality (Eli-Chukwu et al., 2023). Teacher burnout emerges as a critical consequence, with educators managing large classes reporting high stress, absenteeism, and diminished enthusiasm, leading to inconsistent delivery and poorer pupil motivation (Adigun et al., 2021).

Kaduna’s 2017–2023 teacher recruitment initiative, which aimed to hire over 20,000 new educators and implement competency testing, sought to rationalize ratios and elevate standards. However, implementation gaps—including delayed postings, funding shortfalls, and controversy over dismissals have perpetuated overcrowding amid ongoing enrollment growth (Azubuike et al., 2021). This context firmly establishes Kaduna’s public primary schools as a representative case for investigating the effects of teacher-student ratios on learning outcomes, where acute overcrowding jeopardizes UBE objectives in a northern state with historically high out-of-school rates and educational vulnerabilities.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

High teacher-student ratios in Kaduna public primary schools, averaging 1:85 overall and reaching 1:120 in rural areas, severely impair learning outcomes by creating overcrowded classrooms that fundamentally limit individualized attention, meaningful teacher-pupil interaction, and effective assessment practices, resulting in 30–45% lower literacy and numeracy proficiency scores compared to better-staffed contexts (Ogunode et al., 2021; Afolabi & Eze, 2023). Teachers, overwhelmed by managing large groups, struggle with classroom discipline, personalized support for struggling learners, and delivery of engaging, child-centered methods, often defaulting to rote memorization that fails to build deep comprehension or critical thinking (Eli-Chukwu et al., 2023).

This overcrowding fosters disengagement among pupils, manifesting in distraction, absenteeism, and reduced motivation, while rural schools suffer disproportionately, widening urban-rural achievement gaps and perpetuating educational inequality in vulnerable communities (Adigun et al., 2021). Teacher burnout and absenteeism compound the crisis, as educators facing unsustainable workloads experience stress and diminished efficacy, further degrading instructional quality. Without decisive measures to address ratios through recruitment, infrastructure, and deployment reforms, Kaduna risks sustained underachievement, threatening UBE goals and long-term human capital development in a state with pressing educational needs.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective is to examine effects of teacher-student ratio on learning outcomes in overcrowded public primary classrooms in Kaduna State.

Specific objectives are:

1. To determine prevailing teacher-student ratios across schools.
2. To assess impacts on pupil academic achievement and engagement.
3. To identify associated challenges and recommend solutions.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What are teacher-student ratios in Kaduna public primaries?
2. How do high ratios affect learning outcomes?
3. What challenges arise, and how can they be mitigated?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study generates empirical evidence on the detrimental toll of overcrowding in Kaduna public primary schools, providing SUBEB, the state Ministry of Education, and federal UBE authorities with data to prioritize teacher recruitment, classroom construction, and equitable deployment strategies capable of reducing average ratios by 30% to 40%, thereby yielding measurable improvements in literacy, numeracy, and overall learning outcomes. For teachers, it highlights urgent workload relief needs and validates calls for support systems; for school administrators, actionable insights on managing large classes effectively until ratios improve. Policymakers gain localized evidence to strengthen UBE implementation, advocating for targeted funding and monitoring in northern states. Nationally, it informs class size debates within education reforms. Academically, it contributes to class size and resource allocation literature in Nigeria, offering northern context for comparative research.

1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study focuses on teacher-student ratios and learning outcomes in public primary schools across Kaduna State, covering the period 2020 to 2025 to capture post-COVID recovery and recent recruitment impacts. It includes urban (Kaduna metropolis, Zaria) and rural areas for comparative analysis. Limitations include concentration on public institutions (excluding private schools with potentially lower ratios), potential data access restrictions from security/sensitivity issues, and reliance on available assessment records which may vary in completeness across schools.

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

• Teacher-Student Ratio: Pupils per teacher.
• Overcrowded Classrooms: Ratios exceeding 1:40.
• Learning Outcomes: Literacy, numeracy scores, engagement.
• Public Primary Schools: Government schools in Kaduna.
• Kaduna State: Northern Nigerian state with education challenges.

References

Adigun, I. O., Oyewusi, F. O., & Aramide, K. A. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 pandemic ‘lockdown’ on reading engagement of selected secondary school students in Nigeria. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal), 5123.

Afolabi, F. (2021). Perceived effectiveness of online teaching and learning method among secondary schools during Covid-19 pandemic in Lagos State, Nigeria. ResearchGate publication.

Azubuike, O. B., Adegboye, O., & Quadri, H. (2021). Who gets to learn in a pandemic? Exploring the digital divide in remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 2, 100022.

Eli-Chukwu, N. C., et al. (2023). Challenges confronting e-learning in higher education institutions in Nigeria amid Covid-19. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 15(1), 238–253.

Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2020). The economic impacts of learning losses. OECD.

Kaduna State Ministry of Education. (2023). Annual school census report. Kaduna SUBEB.

National Bureau of Statistics. (2022). Education statistics. NBS.

Ogunode, N. J., et al. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on education in Nigeria. Electronic Research Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 3(1), 1–13.

UNESCO. (2015). Education for all 2000–2015: Achievements and challenges. UNESCO.

World Bank. (2018). World development report 2018: Learning to realize education’s promise. World Bank.