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SPEAKING IMPLICATIONS OF ENGLISH-IKWERE CONTACT IN AKPOR KINGDOM OF RIVERS STATE
Abstract
This study examined the speaking implications of English-Ikwere contact in Akpor Kingdom of Rivers State, focusing on the linguistic, socio-cultural, and professional communication effects of prolonged bilingual interaction. A cross-sectional survey research design was adopted to explore how English influences spoken Ikwere, particularly in terms of phonology, syntax, lexicon, and code-switching practices. A structured questionnaire was developed and administered to a sample of 400 respondents, selected using a stratified random sampling technique to ensure diverse representation. Data collected were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27. Descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation, were used to summarize responses, while inferential statistics, specifically the one-sample t-test, were employed to test the hypotheses. The results revealed a significant phonological impact of English on Ikwere, with respondents acknowledging changes in pronunciation, stress patterns, and tonal structures. The syntactic and lexical influence was also evident, as direct translations of English phrases, word order shifts, and the increasing incorporation of English loanwords into Ikwere were widely recognized. The study further found that code-switching and code-mixing were prevalent among bilingual speakers in Akpor Kingdom. Respondents agreed that these linguistic strategies enhanced communication efficiency, helped bridge lexical gaps, and served important social and professional functions. However, socio-cultural perceptions of bilingual language use varied, with younger and more educated individuals viewing English-Ikwere blending as a sign of modernity and social mobility, while older speakers expressed concerns about the erosion of the Ikwere language. The findings also confirmed the dominance of English in educational and professional settings, as respondents indicated that English proficiency was essential for academic success and career advancement. While bilingualism was acknowledged as an asset, the study highlighted that the increasing preference for English in formal domains had contributed to the declining use of Ikwere in professional and educational communication. This trend raised concerns about the long-term preservation of the Ikwere language. The t-test results reinforced these observations, as all computed t-values exceeded the critical table value of 2.92 at a 5% level of significance, with p-values consistently below 0.05. These findings underscored the substantial impact of English on Ikwere, demonstrating that linguistic contact had not only reshaped spoken Ikwere but also influenced broader socio-cultural and professional interactions. In conclusion, the study established that while English-Ikwere bilingualism provides communicative and socio-economic advantages, it also poses challenges for the preservation of Ikwere. The findings highlight the need for language planning strategies that balance English proficiency with efforts to maintain and promote indigenous linguistic heritage.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Language contact occurs when two or more linguistic communities interact, leading to mutual influences and changes in the structure, vocabulary, and phonology of the languages involved (Bybee, 2020). In the Akpor Kingdom of Rivers State, Nigeria, the interaction between English and the indigenous Ikwere language has given rise to a unique linguistic phenomenon. This interaction has implications for communication, identity, education, and sociolinguistic dynamics, necessitating an in-depth exploration of its effects.
English, as Nigeria’s official language, plays a critical role in governance, education, and commerce, serving as a lingua franca among diverse ethnic groups (Hoff, 2023). However, Ikwere remains an essential medium for cultural expression and local interactions. Over time, the constant interplay between these languages has resulted in code-switching, borrowing, and the emergence of a distinct English variety influenced by Ikwere linguistic structures (Labov, 2020). This phenomenon mirrors similar language contact situations in multilingual nations, where indigenous languages coexist with colonial languages, leading to hybrid linguistic outcomes (Siegel, 2022).
The Ikwere language, a member of the Igboid branch of the Niger-Congo family, is spoken by the Ikwere people in Rivers State (Jowitt, 2021). Despite the influence of English, Ikwere continues to thrive in informal domains such as homes, marketplaces, and religious gatherings. However, due to the dominance of English in formal settings such as schools and government institutions, there is an increasing shift toward bilingualism, where speakers constantly navigate between both languages (Elugbe, 2021).
This linguistic interplay has led to several speech-related outcomes, including code-mixing, where English and Ikwere words are used interchangeably within a single conversation (Kenpro, 2020). In addition, English words have been borrowed and adapted into Ikwere phonology, resulting in new linguistic forms. For instance, certain English words are pronounced using Ikwere phonological patterns, altering their original structure and meaning (Richards & Schmidt, 2020). These linguistic adaptations demonstrate the dynamic nature of language contact and its impact on everyday communication.
One of the most noticeable features of language contact in Akpor Kingdom is code-switching, where speakers alternate between English and Ikwere within a single discourse (Wolfram & Schilling, 2022). This practice is common in multilingual societies, where speakers use different languages depending on the context and audience. Code-switching often serves specific communicative functions, such as emphasizing a point, addressing different social groups, or expressing emotions (Hoff, 2009).
For example, in informal conversations, an Ikwere speaker might start a sentence in English but complete it in Ikwere:
“I went to the market yesterday, but ọ dịghị anyi mma (it was not good for us).”
Such instances highlight the flexible and adaptive nature of bilingual speech. This linguistic fluidity can enhance communication efficiency but may also create challenges for speakers who struggle with balancing proficiency in both languages (Marcus, 2018).
Beyond code-switching, English has significantly influenced the Ikwere lexicon, leading to the borrowing of words and phrases that do not originally exist in the local language. Borrowing occurs when words from one language are incorporated into another, often with phonological and morphological modifications (Ndimele, 2021). In Akpor Kingdom, borrowed English words in Ikwere speech include terms related to technology, education, and governance, such as komputa (computer), moto (motorcar), and skul (school).
These borrowed words sometimes undergo semantic shifts, where their meanings are slightly altered to fit the Ikwere linguistic and cultural context (Gooden, 2021). Such adaptations indicate the ongoing integration of English into Ikwere speech patterns while preserving the structural integrity of the indigenous language.
Another critical aspect of English-Ikwere contact is phonological interference, where Ikwere speakers apply native phonetic rules when speaking English. This results in pronunciation patterns that differ from standard English (Koźbiał, 2021). For instance, Ikwere speakers may replace English sounds that do not exist in their phonetic inventory with the closest equivalent from their native language.
A common example is the substitution of the English /θ/ (as in think) with /t/ or /s/, leading to pronunciations like tink or sink instead of think (Lewis, 2020). Similarly, the absence of certain English diphthongs in Ikwere results in monophthongization, where diphthongs are simplified, affecting word pronunciation (Labiba, 2023). These phonological features contribute to a distinct English accent among Ikwere speakers, which may sometimes lead to misunderstandings in communication.
The contact between English and Ikwere in Akpor Kingdom has significant sociolinguistic implications, affecting identity, prestige, and language perception. Language is closely tied to identity, and speakers often use different languages to negotiate social belonging and status (Charity Hudley & Mallinson, 2024). In urban settings, fluency in English is often associated with education and modernity, while Ikwere is linked to tradition and cultural heritage.
This perception has led to linguistic stratification, where younger generations are more inclined to use English, sometimes at the expense of their native language (Azubuike, 2023). This shift raises concerns about language endangerment, as younger speakers may develop passive bilingualism, where they understand Ikwere but struggle to speak it fluently (Hutchinson & Waters, 2020). The preference for English in formal and professional contexts further reinforces this trend, leading to the gradual decline of native language proficiency.
The interplay between English and Ikwere also influences language learning and academic performance. In Nigerian schools, English is the primary medium of instruction, making proficiency in the language essential for academic success (Ndiyo, 2023). However, many students in Akpor Kingdom enter school with Ikwere as their first language, leading to challenges in English acquisition.
Language interference occurs when the structural patterns of Ikwere influence English usage, resulting in grammatical errors and difficulties in comprehension (Mahe & Adegboye, 2021). For instance, differences in syntactic structures may cause Ikwere speakers to construct English sentences using native language patterns, leading to expressions like “He is having two books” instead of “He has two books.” Such errors can hinder effective communication and impact students’ performance in English-based assessments (Jowitt, 2021).
To address these challenges, educators have advocated for bilingual education models that integrate Ikwere in early childhood learning before transitioning to English (Richards, Platt, & Weber, 2021). This approach allows students to develop strong foundational literacy skills in their native language, facilitating smoother English acquisition (Shormani & AlSohbani, 2023).
The contact between English and Ikwere in Akpor Kingdom is a dynamic linguistic process with far-reaching implications for communication, identity, and education. Code-switching, borrowing, phonological interference, and lexical innovations illustrate the complexity of this interaction. While English remains dominant in formal domains, Ikwere continues to be an essential part of cultural and social life.
Understanding the implications of this language contact is crucial for linguistic policy and education, ensuring that both languages are preserved and effectively utilized. As globalization and urbanization continue to shape language use, further research is needed to explore strategies for balancing bilingualism while maintaining linguistic diversity in Nigeria.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Language contact between English and Ikwere in Akpor Kingdom has led to significant linguistic transformations, yet scholarly research on its implications remains limited. While previous studies have examined aspects of Nigerian English and indigenous language interactions (Jowitt, 2021; Elugbe, 2021), there is a noticeable gap in research specifically addressing the speaking implications of English-Ikwere contact in Akpor Kingdom. Most existing studies focus on broader issues of language contact in Nigeria without detailed analyses of how this phenomenon affects fluency, intelligibility, and communication patterns among Ikwere speakers.
One critical gap in research is the extent to which English influences Ikwere phonology and syntax. Studies on Nigerian English have highlighted phonological interference from indigenous languages (Labiba, 2023; Lewis, 2020), but they have not provided a comprehensive analysis of how Ikwere speakers adapt English sounds, modify sentence structures, and engage in code-switching. Additionally, while phonological studies of Nigerian English exist (Koźbiał, 2021), there is little documentation on specific pronunciation patterns among Ikwere speakers and how these affect mutual intelligibility in communication.
Another unaddressed issue is the impact of English-Ikwere contact on code-switching and borrowing. While research has explored code-mixing in Nigerian Pidgin and other indigenous languages (Azubuike, 2023; Siegel, 2022), few studies have examined the systematic patterns of code-switching between English and Ikwere. The functions, motivations, and constraints of code-switching in everyday conversations remain understudied, particularly in social, educational, and professional settings in Akpor Kingdom (Wolfram & Schilling, 2022). Understanding these patterns is essential for identifying the sociolinguistic consequences of bilingual speech in the region.
Additionally, there is limited research on the sociocultural implications of language contact in Akpor Kingdom. Language is deeply tied to identity and social stratification (Charity Hudley & Mallinson, 2024), yet few studies have investigated how English-Ikwere bilingualism shapes cultural perceptions, language attitudes, and generational language shifts. The increasing preference for English among younger speakers (Hutchinson & Waters, 2020) raises concerns about language endangerment, but there is insufficient empirical research documenting the extent to which Ikwere is being displaced in favor of English.
In the educational sector, research gaps exist regarding the effects of English-Ikwere bilingualism on students’ academic performance and language acquisition. Studies on English language learning in Nigeria have generally focused on first language (L1) interference (Idris, 2020), but there is little investigation into how Ikwere-specific linguistic structures influence English fluency, grammar, and comprehension skills. Moreover, the role of bilingual education in addressing these challenges remains underexplored, despite evidence suggesting that early exposure to indigenous languages can facilitate better learning outcomes (Ndiyo, 2023).
Furthermore, existing literature lacks a comprehensive assessment of how language policies in Rivers State accommodate or neglect the linguistic realities of English-Ikwere bilinguals. Most language policy discussions in Nigeria emphasize major languages like Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa (Ndimele, 2021), leaving out smaller linguistic communities like the Ikwere. The absence of tailored language policies that recognize the complexities of English-Ikwere contact may contribute to language attrition and reduced proficiency in both languages over time.
Given these gaps, this study seeks to provide a detailed analysis of the speaking implications of English-Ikwere contact in Akpor Kingdom. By examining phonological, syntactic, and sociolinguistic dimensions, this research will fill the void in existing literature and contribute to a broader understanding of language contact in Nigeria. The findings will also have practical implications for education, policy formulation, and linguistic preservation efforts in multilingual communities.
This study seeks to bridge this knowledge gap by providing empirical data on the speaking implications of English-Ikwere contact, highlighting both the opportunities and challenges arising from this linguistic interaction.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The study aims to:
- Examine the phonological influence of English on the spoken Ikwere language in Akpor Kingdom.
- Analyze the syntactic and lexical changes resulting from English-Ikwere contact.
- Investigate the prevalence and functions of code-switching and code-mixing among bilingual speakers.
- Assess the socio-cultural attitudes towards English-Ikwere linguistic blending.
- Evaluate the implications of this linguistic contact on educational and professional communication.
1.4 Research Questions
- How has English influenced the phonological patterns of spoken Ikwere in Akpor Kingdom?
- What syntactic and lexical changes have emerged due to English-Ikwere contact?
- How frequently do bilingual speakers engage in code-switching and code-mixing, and for what purposes?
- What are the socio-cultural perceptions of English-Ikwere linguistic interactions?
- How does the linguistic contact affect communication in educational and professional settings?
1.5 Research Hypotheses
- English has not significantly influenced the phonological structure of spoken Ikwere.
- English-Ikwere contact has not led to noticeable syntactic and lexical modifications.
- Code-switching and code-mixing are not common and do not serve specific communicative functions among bilingual speakers.
- Socio-cultural perceptions of linguistic blending does not vary among different demographic groups in Akpor Kingdom.
- English-Ikwere linguistic contact has no measurable impact on communication efficiency in educational and professional environments.
1.6 Significance of the Study
This study holds significant value across multiple domains, including academic research, language policy, sociolinguistics, education, and cultural preservation. The findings will contribute to a deeper understanding of English-Ikwere language contact and its implications for communication, identity, and linguistic adaptation in Akpor Kingdom, Rivers State.
From an academic perspective, this research will expand existing linguistic literature on language contact, particularly within Nigeria’s complex multilingual environment. While studies have explored Nigerian English and its interactions with various indigenous languages, there remains a gap in understanding how English influences the phonology, syntax, and speech patterns of Ikwere speakers. By documenting the specific linguistic adaptations occurring in Akpor Kingdom, this study will add to the body of knowledge on contact linguistics and bilingual speech behavior. It will also provide comparative insights for linguists studying similar language interactions in other parts of Nigeria and beyond.
The findings of this research will also have important policy implications, particularly in the realm of language planning and education. Language policies in Nigeria have often focused on major languages like Yoruba, Hausa, and Igbo, while smaller linguistic groups like the Ikwere receive less attention. This study can provide empirical data that policymakers may use to design more inclusive language policies that recognize and integrate indigenous languages into formal education and public communication. For instance, if the study reveals that code-switching and borrowing from English into Ikwere are widespread, policymakers may consider bilingual education models that embrace both languages instead of enforcing English-only instruction. Such an approach could help students achieve literacy in both English and Ikwere, thereby strengthening their linguistic competence.
Beyond policy, the study will deepen sociolinguistic understanding by shedding light on how bilingual communities navigate language interactions in everyday communication. In multilingual societies, speakers often alternate between languages for different purposes, depending on social context, audience, and linguistic norms. By analyzing the motivations and constraints of code-switching and code-mixing among Ikwere-English bilinguals, this research will provide valuable insights into how speakers manage linguistic duality. It will also highlight whether English dominance in formal settings affects the status of Ikwere, contributing to discussions on language shift and maintenance in minority language communities.
Education is another critical area where this study’s findings will be relevant. In many Nigerian schools, English serves as the primary medium of instruction, while students’ first languages are often disregarded in formal learning environments. However, language interference from Ikwere into English may affect students’ performance, particularly in English language subjects. If the study identifies specific challenges that students face due to phonological, grammatical, or lexical interference, educators can use this knowledge to develop targeted teaching strategies. For example, recognizing common pronunciation errors among Ikwere-English bilinguals can help language teachers design pronunciation drills that specifically address those areas of difficulty. Additionally, if the study finds that students who use both languages perform better in certain subjects, it could reinforce arguments for bilingual education as a way to enhance learning outcomes.
Finally, this research will contribute to cultural preservation efforts by highlighting the ongoing linguistic changes in the Ikwere language. Language is deeply connected to cultural identity, and as more Ikwere speakers adopt English in daily communication, there is a risk of gradual language loss. By documenting how English is influencing Ikwere speech patterns, the study can inform strategies to promote and sustain the use of the indigenous language. Language preservation initiatives, such as the development of bilingual dictionaries, educational materials, and media programs in Ikwere, can benefit from this research. Moreover, the study may encourage community-led efforts to maintain traditional linguistic practices while adapting to modern linguistic realities.
1.7 Scope of the Study
The study focuses on the Akpor Kingdom in Rivers State, Nigeria, examining how the contact between English and Ikwere affects spoken communication. It covers phonological, syntactic, and lexical influences, code-switching patterns, socio-cultural attitudes, and implications for education and professional interactions. The study primarily targets bilingual speakers, educators, and linguistic experts within the region.