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PRODUCTION OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUEL (SAF) FROM NON-EDIBLE NIGERIAN FEEDSTOCKS VIA HYDROPROCESSING: PROCESS DESIGN, CATALYST DEVELOPMENT, AND LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Abstract
Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) produced via the Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) pathway offers a drop-in solution to decarbonize aviation, which contributes significantly to global CO₂ emissions. This thesis explores the production of SAF from non-edible Nigerian feedstocks—Jatropha curcas oil and waste cooking oil (WCO) using hydroprocessing. These feedstocks leverage Nigeria’s abundant marginal lands for Jatropha cultivation and urban WCO generation, avoiding food-fuel conflicts and supporting circular economy principles.
Key components include process design (via simulation of hydrodeoxygenation (HDO), hydroisomerization, and fractionation), catalyst development/review (bifunctional systems for selective deoxygenation and branching), and a cradle-to-wake Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Results indicate viable jet-range hydrocarbon yields (typically 40–60% SAF fraction post-isomerization), with GHG emissions reductions of up to 75% for Jatropha-derived SAF and higher (often >80–90%) for WCO-based SAF compared to conventional Jet A-1 (~89 g CO₂e/MJ). Challenges such as hydrogen consumption, catalyst deactivation, and supply chain logistics in the Nigerian context are addressed, alongside recommendations for pilot-scale implementation, policy incentives, and local catalyst optimization. This work demonstrates the techno-environmental feasibility of domestic SAF production to enhance energy security, reduce aviation emissions, and promote rural development in Nigeria.
Keywords: Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF), HEFA, Jatropha curcas, Waste Cooking Oil, Hydroprocessing, Catalyst, Life Cycle Assessment, Nigeria.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
The aviation sector plays a pivotal role in global economic connectivity, trade, and mobility, but it remains a significant contributor to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. In 2024, commercial aviation emitted a gross total of approximately 942 million tonnes (Mt) of CO₂, representing about 2–3% of global energy-related CO₂ emissions and roughly 10% of the transportation sector’s emissions in many economies (IATA, 2024). This figure reflects a strong post-pandemic rebound, with gross CO₂ output rising from 882 Mt in 2023, even as efficiency improvements reduced CO₂ intensity per revenue tonne-kilometre (RTK) by approximately 3.7% (IATA, 2024). Projections indicate that, absent substantial interventions, aviation emissions could more than double by 2050 under business-as-usual growth scenarios, driven by increasing demand in emerging markets (ICAO, 2025).
To address this, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) has committed to net-zero carbon emissions by 2050, aligning with the International Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO) long-term aspirational goal (LTAG) for international aviation (IATA, 2024; ICAO, 2025). Achieving net-zero will require a multifaceted approach, including operational efficiencies, advanced aircraft technologies, optimized infrastructure, and most critically, the large-scale deployment of Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF). SAF, defined as renewable or waste-derived drop-in hydrocarbon fuels compatible with existing jet engines and infrastructure, can deliver lifecycle GHG reductions of 50–95% compared to conventional Jet A-1, depending on feedstock and production pathway (Vardon et al., 2022; Braun et al., 2024).
Among certified pathways under ASTM D7566, the Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) route, also termed HEFA-Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HEFA-SPK), is the most mature and dominant commercially (NREL, 2024). HEFA converts lipid feedstocks (triglycerides and free fatty acids) via hydrodeoxygenation (HDO), hydroisomerization, and hydrocracking into paraffinic hydrocarbons suitable for the jet range (C₈–C₁₆), achieving jet fraction yields of 40–60% after fractionation and meeting key specifications such as freezing point (≤ –47°C) and thermal stability (NREL, 2024b). As of 2024–2025, HEFA accounts for the majority of global SAF production, with output reaching around 1 million tonnes in 2024 (doubling from prior years) and projected to grow further, though still below 1% of total jet fuel demand (IATA, 2024).
Feedstock choice critically determines SAF’s sustainability and scalability. Edible oils (e.g., palm, soybean) pose risks of indirect land-use change (ILUC), food competition, and biodiversity impacts, prompting regulations like CORSIA, ReFuelEU Aviation, and the U.S. SAF Grand Challenge to favor waste/residue streams and non-edible crops on marginal lands (IEA Bioenergy, 2024). In Nigeria, two promising non-edible feedstocks align with this priority: Jatropha curcas oil and waste cooking oil (WCO).
Jatropha curcas, a drought-resistant perennial shrub, thrives on marginal, degraded, or semi-arid lands with low input requirements, making it suitable for Nigeria’s diverse agro-ecological zones, particularly northern savannas (Abdudeen et al., 2023; Riayatsyah et al., 2022). Seed oil yields range from 30–40% (higher in improved varieties), with a fatty acid profile dominated by oleic and linoleic acids ideal for HEFA processing. Cultivation on marginal lands avoids ILUC, provides soil erosion control, and supports rural livelihoods (Hao et al., 2022). While early commercialization faced yield and market challenges, recent reviews reaffirm Jatropha’s potential as a low-carbon feedstock, with lifecycle assessments showing GHG emissions as low as 10.4–24 g CO₂e/MJ for HEFA-SAF (Kurzawska-Pietrowicz et al., cited in Shah et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2024).
Waste cooking oil (WCO), abundant in urban Nigeria due to household and commercial food services, offers a waste-to-value circular economy opportunity. Improper disposal causes environmental pollution and health hazards, but formalized collection can mitigate these while supplying low-upstream-emission feedstock for HEFA (often achieving >80–90% WTW GHG savings versus fossil Jet A-1’s ~89 g CO₂e/MJ) (Alherbawi et al., 2021; comparative LCA studies, 2024). In Lagos, recent initiatives by the Lagos State Government, in partnership with Ororo Waste Management and Shell Foundation, have launched household WCO collection kiosks at LASEPA zonal offices, rewarding depositors and targeting a $20 million biofuel market, with potential for Lagos to supply a major share of national volumes (Premium Times, 2026; Guardian Nigeria, 2026).
Nigeria, Africa’s largest economy and population center, faces rising aviation fuel demand amid economic growth. Jet fuel consumption was around 14.1 thousand barrels per day in 2023, with historical reliance on imports due to refining constraints (though mitigated by the Dangote Refinery) (IEA, 2025). Domestic SAF production from local non-edible feedstocks could enhance energy security, reduce import dependence, conserve foreign exchange, and align with Nigeria’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), Energy Transition Plan, and sustainable development objectives. A World Bank assessment highlights Africa’s HEFA potential using waste oils and non-edible crops, with Nigeria positioned for leadership given its resources (World Bank, recent). Lifecycle studies confirm superior environmental performance for these feedstocks, with WCO-based HEFA delivering the highest reductions and Jatropha viable on marginal lands (Zhang et al., 2024; Frontiers review, 2024).
Catalyst and process advancements further enhance HEFA viability, with bifunctional systems (e.g., Pt on SAPO-11) improving selectivity and reducing hydrogen use (photothermal reviews, 2026). This thesis examines SAF production from Nigerian Jatropha oil and WCO via HEFA, integrating process design, catalyst assessment, and LCA to support evidence-based deployment.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Aviation’s reliance on conventional Jet A-1 fuel sustains elevated lifecycle emissions (~89 g CO₂e/MJ well-to-wake) and exposes the sector to fuel price instability (IATA, 2024). In Nigeria, increasing demand intensifies dependence on imported fuel, despite incremental domestic refining improvements, while international sustainability frameworks (e.g., CORSIA and prospective blending requirements) necessitate the adoption of low-carbon alternatives.
Edible feedstocks for Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) pathways present sustainability concerns due to indirect land-use change (ILUC) and potential food security implications. Non-edible alternatives, such as Jatropha and waste cooking oil (WCO), offer viable solutions but face significant obstacles:
- Immature supply chains: Jatropha cultivation remains decentralized with inconsistent yields, while WCO collection persists as an informal sector activity despite localized initiatives in Lagos (Premium Times, 2026).
- Technical challenges: Hydroprocessing necessitates high-purity hydrogen, stringent pretreatment for high free fatty acid (FFA) WCO, and optimized catalysts to achieve desirable jet fuel selectivity and cold-flow performance. Nigeria-specific feedstock behavior under HEFA conditions remains poorly documented (NREL, 2024).
- Environmental and economic limitations: Few well-to-wake (WTW) lifecycle assessments (LCAs) have been conducted in the Nigerian context, and reliance on fossil-derived hydrogen may diminish emissions benefits. Additionally, prohibitive capital expenditures deter investment without targeted financial incentives (IEA Bioenergy, 2024; Zhang et al., 2024).
- Policy and infrastructure deficiencies: The absence of dedicated sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) mandates, carbon pricing mechanisms, or fiscal incentives obstructs commercialization efforts and compromises fuel quality standardization (ICAO, 2025).
These constraints hinder Nigeria’s potential engagement in SAF production, forfeiting substantial emissions reductions (60–90%), socio-economic opportunities in rural and urban areas, and circular economy advantages. Without comprehensive research addressing process optimization, catalytic efficiency, and localized LCA, the technical and economic feasibility of SAF production remains unverified, stalling policy formulation and private sector investment.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
Aim The aim of this research is to evaluate and advance the production of Sustainable Aviation Fuel from non-edible Nigerian feedstocks specifically Jatropha curcas oil and waste cooking oil via the hydroprocessing (HEFA) pathway. This is achieved through integrated process design, catalyst assessment, and Life Cycle Assessment to establish technical, environmental, and contextual feasibility for deployment in Nigeria.
Specific Objectives
- To characterize the physicochemical properties of Nigerian Jatropha oil and WCO and develop a process simulation model (e.g., using Aspen Plus) for a commercial-scale HEFA facility, optimizing key parameters (temperature, pressure, H₂/oil ratio, LHSV) to maximize jet-fuel yield while meeting ASTM D7566 specifications.
- To review and propose suitable bifunctional catalyst systems for hydrodeoxygenation and hydroisomerization stages, evaluating activity, selectivity, stability, and potential for local adaptation using Nigerian-sourced supports or modifications.
- To conduct a comparative cradle-to-wake Life Cycle Assessment (following ISO 14040/44) of SAF production from the two feedstocks versus conventional jet fuel, quantifying GHG emissions, energy use, and other environmental impacts, with sensitivity analysis on hydrogen source, allocation methods, and supply-chain variables.
- To assess the broader implications for Nigeria, including techno-economic feasibility, supply-chain requirements, policy recommendations, and alignment with national and international sustainability frameworks.
1.4 Significance of the Study
This research holds multifaceted significance. Environmentally, it quantifies the potential for substantial GHG reductions up to 75%+ for Jatropha on marginal lands and over 80–90% for WCO—contributing directly to Nigeria’s climate goals and global aviation decarbonization. By prioritizing waste and marginal-land feedstocks, it minimizes land-use conflicts and promotes biodiversity.
Economically, domestic SAF production can reduce reliance on imported fossil jet fuel, conserve foreign exchange, and stimulate new value chains in agriculture, waste management, and green chemistry. Jatropha cultivation on marginal lands offers income diversification for rural communities, while formalized WCO collection (building on Lagos initiatives) creates urban employment and circular economy opportunities. The World Bank assessment underscores Africa’s broader SAF potential, and Nigeria given its population, land resources, and refining capacity can emerge as a regional leader.
Socially, the project supports sustainable development by fostering skills in biorefining, enhancing energy security, and improving public health through better WCO management (reducing pollution from improper disposal).
Academically and industrially, the work fills critical data gaps on Nigerian feedstocks in HEFA applications, providing simulation models, catalyst insights, and LCA inventories that can guide future experimental and pilot-scale efforts. It contributes to the growing body of literature on context-specific SAF pathways in developing economies and offers a replicable framework for other African nations.
Ultimately, the study provides actionable recommendations for policymakers, investors, and stakeholders to accelerate SAF adoption, aligning Nigeria with international standards while advancing its energy transition and economic diversification agenda.
1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study
The scope is delimited to the HEFA pathway using Jatropha curcas oil and WCO as feedstocks, with a focus on process simulation, catalyst literature review and conceptual development, and ISO-compliant LCA (cradle-to-wake functional unit: 1 MJ of SAF). The analysis targets a hypothetical commercial-scale plant (e.g., 100–500 ktpa) relevant to Nigerian demand and export potential. Nigerian-specific data (feedstock properties, agricultural yields, logistics) are prioritized, supplemented by global benchmarks where local data are sparse.
Limitations include reliance on process simulation and secondary literature for catalyst performance (no original experimental catalyst synthesis or long-term testing in this work), assumptions in LCA inventory data (e.g., hydrogen production scenarios, marginal land yields), and exclusion of full techno-economic analysis (TEA) or pilot validation, which are recommended for follow-on studies. Variability in Jatropha yields across regions and informal WCO collection efficiencies introduce uncertainty, addressed through sensitivity analysis. The study does not cover other SAF pathways (e.g., ATJ, FT) or advanced blending/ certification logistics beyond HEFA compatibility.
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