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MODULAR WASTE-TO-ENERGY PLANT DESIGN FOR OFF-GRID ELECTRICITY IN NIGERIAN COMMUNITIES

Abstract
Nigeria grapples with severe electricity access deficits, particularly in rural and off-grid communities, alongside mounting municipal solid waste (MSW) challenges that contribute to environmental degradation and health risks. This study explores modular waste-to-energy (WtE) plant designs as a decentralized solution to convert local waste into reliable off-grid electricity. Drawing on Nigeria’s high organic waste fraction (typically 50–70%) and abundant biomass resources, the research assesses waste generation patterns, reviews suitable modular technologies (e.g., gasification, anaerobic digestion), and proposes scalable designs for community-level deployment. The approach emphasizes technical feasibility, economic viability, environmental benefits, and socio-economic impacts in contexts like Edo State. Findings highlight WtE’s potential to address dual crises, energy poverty and waste mismanagement while aligning with sustainable development goals. Barriers such as policy gaps and financing are identified, with recommendations for implementation.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Nigeria, Africa’s most populous nation with over 200 million people, contends with interconnected crises of chronic electricity shortages and escalating municipal solid waste (MSW) management challenges. The country generates approximately 32 million tonnes of MSW annually, with projections suggesting figures between 43 and 72 million tonnes by 2025 and 2026, driven by rapid population growth and urbanization. Estimates indicate Nigeria could produce 72.46 million tonnes of waste by 2025 at a per capita rate of 0.85 kg/day, escalating to 107 million tonnes by 2050 (World Bank, 2018; updated in CAPPA, 2025). A significant portion of this waste accumulates in open dumpsites, contributing to methane emissions, groundwater contamination, and public health hazards including disease outbreaks and respiratory conditions (Ekanem et al., 2024; NESREA, 2025). Plastic waste constitutes 1.5 to 2.5 million tonnes annually, with recycling rates below 10%, primarily managed through informal sectors (MDPI, 2025; ScienceDirect, 2025). Formal waste collection remains limited to 20-40% capacity, exacerbating environmental pollution and generating greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to millions of tonnes of CO2 annually.

Electricity access remains constrained, particularly in rural areas where approximately 33% of the population had connectivity as of 2023, with incremental improvements anticipated through 2025-2026 initiatives (World Bank, 2023; Intelpoint, 2025). Between 86 and 90 million Nigerians remain without electricity access, forcing off-grid communities to rely on expensive diesel generators, kerosene, or complete power deprivation, resulting in annual economic losses valued in billions of dollars (IEA, 2023; Williams et al., 2024; Chatham House, 2025). The national grid suffers from persistent instability, characterized by frequent outages and limited expansion to remote regions due to prohibitive costs and infrastructure deficiencies. In Edo State, exemplified by Benin City’s power inconsistencies, pilot projects such as solar mini-grids have been implemented to address energy gaps, including a 70kWp micro-grid by ICE Commercial Power and a 60kWp hybrid solar PV system by Acob Lighting targeting rural communities (Diamond Development Initiatives, 2026; Technology Times, 2025).

Waste-to-Energy (WtE) technologies present a dual solution by converting waste into electricity, heat, or biogas through processes including incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, and anaerobic digestion. Nigeria has witnessed the emergence of large-scale WtE initiatives such as the Ikosi Fruit Market anaerobic digester operational since 2026, which processes organic market waste into biogas, and the proposed $400 million Epe WtE facility in Lagos with capacity to process 2,250 tonnes daily while generating 60–75 MW for approximately two million residents (EnviroNews Nigeria, 2026; Nairametrics, 2025). Additional innovations include planned plastic-to-diesel conversion hubs across geopolitical zones and a $300 million 200MW WtE plant in Rivers State (Zawya, 2025; The Ndege Group, 2025). These predominantly centralized, grid-tied solutions nevertheless neglect remote population centers.

Modular WtE systems scalable, prefabricated containerized units ranging from 50 kW to multiple MW capacity offer decentralized deployment advantages for Nigeria’s off-grid contexts (Ellyin, n.d.; Beyene et al., 2018). Nigeria’s MSW composition features high organic content (50–70% on average, reaching 80% regionally), rendering biochemical (anaerobic digestion) and thermochemical (gasification) processes particularly suitable for biogas or syngas power generation (RMI, 2023; Amusan, 2023). Such distributed systems reduce transmission losses, minimize waste transportation requirements, enhance energy autonomy, and advance circular economy principles in rural and peri-urban regions. This proves particularly relevant in Edo State where waste management reforms target illegal dumpsite eradication and environmental remediation (Guardian Nigeria, 2026).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Nigeria’s off-grid electricity gap remains pronounced, with rural electrification rates at approximately 33% as of 2023–2025. Despite ongoing efforts in 2026 to connect 17.5 million households through 1,350 mini-grids under the Rural Electrification Agency (REA), nearly two-thirds of rural residents still lack reliable power (World Bank, 2023; Africa Energy Portal, 2026; Power Africa, 2022). Heavy reliance on diesel generators exacerbates air pollution and imposes significant economic burdens, with annual costs reaching billions. Concurrently, inadequate municipal solid waste (MSW) management results in widespread open dumping, methane emissions with substantial CO2 equivalence, groundwater contamination, and elevated disease risks. Collection rates frequently range between 20–40%, while recycling remains below 10% (NESREA, 2025; Green Habitat, 2025; Nature, 2026). Edo State faces additional challenges, including non-payment for waste services, proliferation of illegal dumpsites, and weak enforcement, prompting government ultimatums in 2026 to clear Benin City and implement stricter pollution regulations (Nigerian Observer, 2026; Facebook, 2026).

Large-scale waste-to-energy (WtE) plants require substantial capital investment, centralized waste collection, and grid integration requirements often incompatible with Nigeria’s fragmented waste systems and remote regions, where infrastructure deficits and corruption impede implementation (Ogunjuyigbe et al., 2017; ScienceDirect, 2025). A critical gap exists in modular, community-adapted WtE solutions tailored to Nigeria’s high-moisture organic waste, fluctuating energy demands, limited technical expertise, and economic constraints. This gap is particularly acute in states like Edo, where off-grid energy needs persist despite ongoing reforms (Maiha and Yusuf, 2025; Oxford Academic, 2024; Technology Times, 2025). Consequently, untapped opportunities for localized energy generation from waste continue to exacerbate energy poverty and environmental degradation.

1.3 Research Objectives

The main objective is to design a modular WtE plant for off-grid electricity in Nigerian communities.

Specific objectives:

1. Assess waste generation, composition, and energy potential in selected off-grid communities.
2. Review WtE technologies and select modular systems for decentralized applications.
3. Propose a conceptual modular WtE design, including sizing, integration, and output.
4. Evaluate technical, economic, environmental, and socio-economic aspects.
5. Identify barriers and policy recommendations for adoption.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What are the quantity, composition, and energy content of MSW in typical off-grid Nigerian communities?
2. Which WtE technologies suit modular, off-grid use in developing contexts?
3. How can a modular plant reliably meet community electricity needs?
4. What are the costs, payback, and benefits of such systems?
5. What factors influence successful implementation?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This work contributes to Nigeria’s energy transition and sustainable development goals by:

• Promoting decentralized renewable energy solutions aligned with national policies like the National Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Policy.
• Reducing reliance on fossil fuels in off-grid areas while mitigating waste-related environmental degradation.
• Providing a blueprint for scalable WtE deployment, potentially replicable across rural Edo State, Benin City environs, and similar regions.
• Supporting job creation in waste collection, plant operation, and maintenance, while improving community health and livelihoods through reliable power for lighting, small enterprises, and essential services.

1.6 Scope and Limitations

The study focuses on modular WtE systems for off-grid electricity (primarily <1–5 MW scale), targeting rural/peri-urban Nigerian communities with emphasis on MSW and biomass waste. It includes conceptual design, techno-economic analysis, and case-study relevance to southern Nigeria (e.g., Edo State contexts). Limitations include reliance on secondary data for waste characterization (due to site-specific variability), assumptions in energy demand modeling, and exclusion of full prototype construction or long-term field testing.

1.7 Organization of the Study

• Chapter One: Introduction
• Chapter Two: Literature Review (WtE technologies, Nigerian waste/energy context, modular systems)
• Chapter Three: Methodology (waste assessment, design approach, modeling tools)
• Chapter Four: Results and Discussion (proposed design, performance analysis)
• Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations

References

• Africa Energy Portal, 2026. Nigeria Accelerates Rural Electrification.
• Amusan, 2023. Waste composition studies.
• Beyene et al., 2018. Current updates on waste to energy technologies: A review. Renewable Energy Focus.
• CAPPA, 2025. Wanted: Blueprint For Nigeria’s Waste Management Crisis.
• Chatham House, 2025. Nigeria is sparking renewable solutions to its energy crisis.
• Diamond Development Initiatives, 2026. Catalogue of Off-Grid Energy Projects.
• Ekanem et al., 2024. Plastic and waste management impacts in Nigeria.
• Ellyin, n.d. Small Scale Waste-to-Energy Technologies. WtERT.
• EnviroNews Nigeria, 2026. Waste-2-Energy: Lagos launches Ikosi Market anaerobic digester.
• Facebook, 2026. New Environmental Waste Management and Pollution Law Signed.
• Green Habitat, 2025. Circular Economy and Smart Waste Management System: The Nigerian Context.
• Guardian Nigeria, 2026. Edo govt issues ultimatum to rid Benin of waste.
• IEA, 2023. SDG7 Data and Projections – Access to Electricity.
• Intelpoint, 2025. Rural electricity access in Nigeria.
• Maiha and Yusuf, 2025. Per capita waste generation in Nigerian cities.
• MDPI, 2025. Status of Production, Consumption, and End-of-Life Waste Management of Plastic and Plastic Products in Nigeria.
• Nairametrics, 2025. Lagos Govt announces plan for $400 million Waste-to-Energy plant in Epe.
• Nature, 2026. Municipal solid waste management forecasting using neural networks.
• NESREA, 2025. Assessment report of gaps and needs of solid waste management in Nigeria.
• Nigerian Observer, 2026. Edo govt gives waste mgrs one-week ultimatum to clear Benin Streets.
• Ogunjuyigbe et al., 2017. Life cycle assessment of waste-to-energy technologies.
• Oxford Academic, 2024. Exploring Nigeria’s waste-to-energy potential.
• Power Africa, 2022. Electricity access statistics for Nigeria.
• RMI, 2023. Organic Waste, an Untapped Solution: Waste Authorities in Nigeria.
• ScienceDirect, 2025. Municipal solid waste management challenges in developing regions.
• Springer Link, 2025. Municipal solid waste recycling in Enugu, Nigeria.
• Technology Times, 2025. Edo State unlocks off-grid, grid solutions for communities.
• The Ndege Group, 2025. $300M Waste-to-Energy Plant & OmniGaza Blockchain.
• Williams et al., 2024. Illuminating Nigeria: Blurring the Lines Between the Grid and Off-Grid Electricity.
• World Bank, 2018 (updated 2023). What a Waste 2.0; Access to electricity data.
• World Bank, 2023. Access to electricity, rural (% of rural population) – Nigeria.
• Zawya, 2025. Nigeria: Revolutionary innovation set to transform waste management, energy production.