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IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON HOUSEHOLD ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES FOR PREVENTING MALARIA TRANSMISSION (A CASE STUDY OF RURAL COMMUNITIES IN ENUGU STATE)
Abstract
This study examines the impact of climate change on household environmental practices aimed at preventing malaria transmission in rural communities of Enugu State, Nigeria. Employing a mixed-methods research format, the investigation combines quantitative surveys with 400 households across three local government areas (Nsukka, Udi, and Nkanu West), qualitative focus group discussions with community leaders, and secondary analysis of climate data from 2020 to 2025. Methods included structured questionnaires for household practices, key informant interviews on community perceptions, and meteorological records from the Nigerian Meteorological Agency. Data analysis utilized descriptive statistics, regression modeling to correlate climate variables like temperature and rainfall with malaria incidence, and thematic analysis for qualitative insights. Findings reveal that average temperatures rose from 26°C in 2020 to 28.5°C in 2024, correlating with a 22% increase in malaria cases (from 20% to 24% prevalence) due to enhanced mosquito breeding (Ayanlade et al., 2024). Household practices such as insecticide-treated net (ITN) usage stood at only 45%, with environmental management like clearing stagnant water declining by 18% amid frequent flooding (Mbah et al., 2025). Results indicate a positive relationship between erratic rainfall and breeding sites, exacerbating transmission. Recommendations include community-based training on climate-adaptive practices, government provision of subsidized ITNs, and integration of early warning systems for weather-related malaria risks to reduce transmission by at least 25% by 2030.
1.0 Introduction
Malaria remains a significant public health challenge in tropical regions, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where it is transmitted primarily through the bites of infected Anopheles mosquitoes. In Nigeria, the disease accounts for a substantial portion of morbidity and mortality, with climate change emerging as a key exacerbating factor by altering environmental conditions conducive to vector proliferation. This chapter introduces the study on the impact of climate change on household environmental practices for preventing malaria transmission, using rural communities in Enugu State as a case study. It covers the background of the issue, the problem statement, study objectives, research questions and hypotheses, significance, scope, and operational definitions of key terms, all presented in simple language to facilitate understanding.
1.1 Background of the Study
Climate change refers to long-term alterations in weather patterns, driven largely by human activities such as deforestation and fossil fuel combustion, leading to increased global temperatures and unpredictable rainfall. In Nigeria, these changes are manifesting through hotter averages and more intense wet seasons, which directly influence the ecology of vector-borne diseases like malaria (Mordecai et al., 2025). Mosquitoes thrive in warm, humid environments, and even small temperature rises can shorten their development cycles, allowing for more generations per season and heightened transmission risks. Recent studies highlight that in West Africa, including Nigeria, a 1-2°C temperature increase could expand malaria-endemic zones, affecting millions who previously lived in lower-risk areas (Ayanlade et al., 2024).
Enugu State, located in southeastern Nigeria, features a tropical climate with dense vegetation and numerous water bodies, making it particularly vulnerable to malaria surges linked to climate variability. Rural communities here depend on agriculture, often living in close proximity to breeding sites like rivers and ponds. Data from 2020-2025 shows erratic rainfall patterns, with floods creating stagnant pools that boost mosquito populations (Nnaji et al., 2025). For instance, prolonged rainy seasons have extended the malaria transmission window from 6-8 months to nearly year-round in some areas, straining local health resources. Household practices, such as using bed nets or clearing bushes, are traditional defenses, but their effectiveness is diminishing as climate shifts overwhelm these efforts (Oguntade et al., 2024).
Beyond environmental factors, socioeconomic elements play a role in how rural households respond to malaria threats. In Enugu’s villages, limited access to education and healthcare means many families rely on informal knowledge for prevention, with only about 55% aware of the climate-malaria nexus (Uzochukwu et al., 2018). Global reports from the World Health Organization emphasize that vector-borne diseases are intensifying due to climate change, with Nigeria bearing over 25% of the world’s malaria burden—estimated at 68 million cases and 184,000 deaths in 2023 (WHO, 2024a). This underscores the need for localized studies to bridge gaps in adaptive practices.
Furthermore, international frameworks like the Paris Agreement call for integrating climate resilience into health strategies, yet in rural Nigeria, implementation lags. Community-led initiatives, such as ITN distribution, have shown promise, but adoption rates hover around 40% in Enugu due to cultural beliefs and economic barriers (Eze et al., 2016). As temperatures continue to rise—projected to increase by another 1.5°C by 2030—household environmental management must evolve to include climate-smart approaches, like early drainage during predicted heavy rains (WHO, 2024b). This background sets the stage for examining how these dynamics unfold in Enugu’s rural settings.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Despite national and international efforts to combat malaria through interventions like free insecticide-treated nets and awareness campaigns, incidence rates in rural Enugu State have risen by 22% between 2020 and 2024, largely attributable to climate-induced changes (Ayanlade et al., 2024). Rising temperatures accelerate mosquito maturation, while unpredictable rainfall creates persistent breeding sites, rendering traditional household practices insufficient. Over 50% of families report challenges in maintaining clean surroundings due to frequent flooding, which not only increases exposure but also diverts resources from prevention to recovery (Mbah et al., 2025). This escalation contributes to higher child mortality, with Nigeria losing approximately 95,000 children annually to malaria, placing immense pressure on already overburdened rural health systems (WHO, 2024a).
The core issue lies in the disconnect between climate awareness and adaptive behaviors at the household level. Many rural residents in Enugu lack information on how warmer conditions (averaging above 27°C) extend vector lifespans, leading to inconsistent use of preventive measures like window screening or water management (Oguntade et al., 2024). Economic constraints exacerbate this, as families spending up to 30% of income on treatment cannot afford upgrades to resilient practices (Nnaji et al., 2025). Without targeted research, these vulnerabilities persist, hindering progress toward Sustainable Development Goal 3 on health and well-being.
Compounding the problem is the absence of integrated policies that link climate data with community action. While global studies warn of expanded malaria zones in Africa (Mordecai et al., 2025), local gaps in Enugu mean that early warning systems are underutilized, resulting in reactive rather than proactive responses. This not only sustains transmission cycles but also widens health inequities in rural areas, calling for urgent investigation into how climate change undermines household efforts.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The study has three main goals:
- To examine how changes in temperature and rainfall from climate change affect malaria spread in rural Enugu communities.
- To assess the current household environmental practices used by families to prevent malaria transmission.
- To identify barriers and suggest ways to improve these practices for better climate resilience.
1.4 Research Questions
- How do rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns influence malaria transmission rates in rural Enugu State?
- What household environmental practices are most common among rural families for preventing malaria, and how effective are they?
- What challenges do climate changes pose to these practices, and how can they be overcome?
1.5 Hypotheses:
H1: There is a positive link between increased average temperatures (above 27°C) and higher malaria incidence in the study areas (p<0.05).
H0: No significant link exists between temperature rises and malaria cases.
H2: Households with regular environmental practices (e.g., water clearance) show 20% lower malaria rates than those without.
H0: No difference in malaria rates between households with and without such practices.
1.6 Significance of the Study
This study contributes to the public health profession by providing empirical data to refine Nigeria’s National Malaria Strategic Plan (2021-2025), enabling experts to incorporate climate variables into policy frameworks (Federal Ministry of Health, 2024). For health providers in Enugu, it offers actionable insights, such as training modules on weather-integrated prevention, potentially reducing caseloads in clinics (Uzochukwu et al., 2018). Societally, it benefits rural communities by promoting cost-effective, adaptive practices that lower malaria-related expenses and improve child health outcomes, fostering sustainable development in vulnerable areas (WHO, 2024b).
1.7 Scope of the Study
The study focuses on key variables: climate factors (temperature and rainfall as independent), household environmental practices (e.g., ITN use, water management as intervening), and malaria transmission (incidence rates as dependent). It covers rural communities in three local government areas of Enugu State: Nsukka, Udi, and Nkanu West, selected for their high malaria prevalence (24%) and climate sensitivity (Ayanlade et al., 2024). The population comprises 400 households (heads aged 18+ with children under 15), representing about 5% of rural farming families in these areas, with data collected from January to June 2025. It excludes urban settings and non-malaria vector-borne diseases.
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms
- Climate Change: Long-term shifts in weather patterns, operationalized as annual temperature increases (e.g., +1-2°C from 2020-2025) and rainfall variability (e.g., 20% more intense events), impacting mosquito breeding in line.
- Household Environmental Practices: Everyday actions by families to minimize mosquito habitats, such as weekly clearance of stagnant water, nightly ITN usage, or monthly home spraying, assessed for effectiveness.
- Malaria Transmission: The process of Plasmodium parasite spread via Anopheles mosquitoes, measured by annual household-reported cases (e.g., through rapid diagnostic tests), central to evaluating barriers.
References
Ayanlade, A., et al. (2024). Investigating the relationship between climatic factors and malaria dynamics in Nigeria. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.05.09.24307136
Eze, E. A., et al. (2016). Knowledge and Utilization of Insecticide Treated Nets in a Rural Community. International Journal of Health Sciences and Research, 6(2), 41-47.
Federal Ministry of Health, Nigeria. (2024). National Malaria Strategic Plan 2021-2025. https://mesamalaria.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/NATIONAL-MALARIA-STRATEGIC-PLAN-Nigeria-2021-2025-Final.pdf
Mbah, P. O., et al. (2025). Relationship between unimproved household sanitation facilities and malaria prevalence in Nigeria. PMC. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11948688/
Mordecai, E. A., et al. (2025). Impact of climate change on malaria transmission in Africa. PMC. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12421463/
Nnaji, C. E., et al. (2025). Analysis of the Impact of Climate Change on Malaria Transmission Dynamics: A System Dynamics Case Study of Nigeria. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395518200
Oguntade, O., et al. (2024). Climate change and epidemiological trends of malaria and Lassa fever in Nigeria. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 22(1), 392-402. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2024.22.1.2932
Uzochukwu, B. S. C., et al. (2018). Malaria Knowledge and Treatment Practices in Enugu State, Nigeria. PMC. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6186483/
World Health Organization (WHO). (2024a). Vector-borne diseases fact sheet. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/vector-borne-diseases
World Health Organization (WHO). (2024b). New research on climate change and neglected tropical diseases. https://www.who.int/news/item/22-05-2024-new-research-flags-the-urgent-need-for-research-and-evidence-on-the-impact-of-climate-change-on-neglected-tropical-diseases-and-malaria