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FLOOD-RESILIENT HOUSING DESIGNS FOR COASTAL AND RIVERINE COMMUNITIES

ABSTRACT

Flooding poses a significant threat to coastal and riverine communities in Nigeria, exacerbated by climate change, urbanization, and poor infrastructure. This thesis explores flood-resilient housing designs tailored to these areas, drawing on sustainable materials, global case studies, and national policies. Through a review of literature and analysis of Nigerian contexts like Lagos and the Niger Delta, the study proposes elevated, amphibious, and wet-floodproofed housing models using materials such as bamboo, recycled aggregates, and reinforced concrete. The designs aim to enhance resilience, reduce displacement, and align with Nigeria’s National Disaster Risk Management Policy. Recommendations include policy enforcement, community involvement, and further research on cost-effective implementations. This work contributes to sustainable architecture in flood-prone regions.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Nigeria boasts an extensive coastline stretching approximately 853 kilometers along the Atlantic Ocean, complemented by a vast network of river systems, including the Niger and Benue Rivers, which collectively drain over 70% of the country’s landmass. This geographical configuration renders the nation highly susceptible to flooding, with coastal and riverine zones experiencing both fluvial and pluvial inundations exacerbated by climate variability (Utsev, 2025). In recent years, the frequency and intensity of these events have intensified, as evidenced by the 2025 climate crises that included flash floods, ocean surges, and coastal erosion across multiple states, resulting in hundreds of lives lost, over 100,000 displacements, and extensive damage to infrastructure and farmlands (TheCable, 2025). Coastal and riverine communities in states such as Lagos, Delta, Bayelsa, and Rivers are particularly afflicted, facing recurrent floods driven by a confluence of natural and anthropogenic factors.

Heavy rainfall, often exceeding 4,000 mm annually in southern regions, combines with storm surges and rising sea levels to amplify flood risks (Utsev, 2025). For instance, sea-level rise, projected to increase by 54-75 cm by 2100 under moderate to high emission scenarios (IPCC, 2022; Earth.Org, 2020), has already heightened vulnerability in Lagos, one of the world’s most exposed cities to extreme sea levels, affecting over 90,000 residents annually through inundation and erosion (Adelekan, 2016; Utility Bidder, 2024). Recent studies highlight how dredging activities along Lagos’ coastline have further reduced the lagoon’s flood absorption capacity, leading to more severe flooding in waterfront neighborhoods during high tides and storms (TheCable, 2025). Human activities compound these challenges; deforestation in the Niger Delta, driven by logging, agricultural expansion, and oil infrastructure, has led to significant mangrove loss—estimated at 26.4% (2,536 km²) from 1986 to 2023, leaving approximately 7,058 km²—eroding natural barriers against floods and storms (Wang et al., 2025). Unregulated urban development, including the conversion of wetlands and poor drainage systems, has obstructed natural water flows, intensifying urban flooding in rapidly growing cities like Port Harcourt and Lagos (Adegun, 2023).

These factors have resulted in catastrophic events, such as the 2022 floods that displaced over 1.3 million people nationwide and caused economic damages estimated between $3.79 billion and $9.12 billion (NBS, 2023), and the 2025 Mokwa flash floods in Niger State that killed at least 150-500 people and displaced thousands (UN News, 2025; The New York Times, 2025). In coastal Lagos, 2025 surges and erosion threatened communities like Apakin and Akodo-Ise, while riverine areas in the Niger Delta faced submergence and livelihood disruptions (TheCable, 2025). Economic losses from such events remain staggering; floods in 2024 alone displaced 1.2 million, destroyed 116,000 homes, and impacted 1.4 million hectares of farmland, with estimated agricultural losses of $1 billion (OCHA, 2025).

These flood-prone areas are home to millions, with a substantial portion residing in informal settlements characterized by substandard housing and limited infrastructure, making them acutely vulnerable to erosion, inundation, and associated health risks like waterborne diseases (Adegun, 2023). In the Niger Delta, environmental degradation from oil spills and deforestation has not only heightened flood susceptibility but also led to biodiversity loss and livelihood disruptions for fishing-dependent communities (Wang et al., 2025). The 2024 nationwide floods impacted 31 of 36 states, killing over 1,200 and displacing 1.2 million (Al Jazeera, 2025), underscoring the scale of vulnerability, with coastal regions bearing a disproportionate burden due to their low-lying topography and proximity to water bodies.

To mitigate these impacts, flood-resilient housing designs have emerged as critical strategies, incorporating elevation on stilts or platforms to allow water passage, amphibious structures that float during floods, and the use of flood-resistant materials such as insulated concrete forms (ICFs) and moisture-resistant composites (Fox Blocks, 2025). Global examples, adaptable to Nigerian contexts, include elevated homes in hurricane-prone areas and floating structures like the Makoko Floating Homes in Lagos, which use locally sourced bamboo and recycled materials for buoyancy and cultural fit (Mainifesto, 2025). Similarly, strategies such as raised foundations, living shorelines with mangroves, and wet floodproofing have been implemented elsewhere to reduce flood risks while enhancing ecosystems (Construction Specifier, 2025). These approaches promote sustainability by integrating green infrastructure, minimizing environmental footprints, and fostering community resilience through adaptive reuse of natural defenses.

This thesis examines the necessity for adaptive architectural solutions in Nigeria’s flood-vulnerable regions, advocating for contextually appropriate designs informed by international best practices and tailored to local socio-economic conditions. Emphasizing resilient housing, the research seeks to mitigate displacement, economic disruption, and susceptibility to environmental hazards, thereby advancing sustainable development in coastal and riverine communities facing intensifying climate-related challenges (Enwin, 2025).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Flooding in Nigeria has become a persistent crisis, characterized by widespread displacement, substantial loss of life, and severe economic damage, estimated in billions of naira annually (Utsev, 2025). The severity of these events is exemplified by the 2025 Mokwa flood in Niger State, which resulted in over 500 fatalities, left more than 600 individuals missing, injured 200, and displaced thousands, while agricultural losses from submerged farmlands amounted to billions of naira (Wikipedia, 2025a; Wikipedia, 2025b). Nationally, the 2024 floods affected 34 of Nigeria’s 36 states, claiming over 320 lives, displacing hundreds of thousands, and damaging critical infrastructure, farmlands, and homes, thereby worsening food insecurity and triggering outbreaks of waterborne diseases such as cholera (OCHA, 2024a; OCHA, 2024b). The economic impact has been staggering, with potential cereal crop losses from the 2024 floods alone approximating US$1 billion, equivalent to the annual food requirement for 13 million people (OCHA, 2025). Coastal erosion and sea-level rise further exacerbate vulnerabilities, particularly in Lagos, where low-lying areas experience annual inundation and accelerated erosion due to climate change and human activities like dredging, threatening to displace thousands and render parts of the city uninhabitable by the end of the century (Al Jazeera, 2024; Earth.Org, 2020; Adelekan, 2016). Projections under moderate to high emission scenarios indicate that sea-level rise of 54-75 cm by 2100 will intensify flooding in Lagos, one of the world’s most exposed cities, potentially affecting over 90,000 residents annually through direct inundation, erosion, and infrastructure collapse (IPCC, 2022; Utility Bidder, 2024).

In riverine regions such as the Niger Delta, intensified fluvial flooding, mangrove degradation, and upstream dam releases have disrupted livelihoods, diminished biodiversity, and heightened resource conflicts as displaced communities compete for dwindling land and fishing grounds (Wang et al., 2025; ACCORD, 2023). Traditional housing in these high-risk zones primarily informal settlements constructed with non-durable materials such as poor-quality sandcrete blocks, mud, and inadequate foundations lacks structural resilience, often collapsing under repeated flooding and exacerbating vulnerability to health hazards from contaminated water and prolonged displacement (Adegun, 2023; Ndimele et al., 2024). The absence of proper drainage and sanitation in these settlements amplifies exposure, subjecting residents to recurrent cycles of asset and farmland destruction (Adegun, 2023; PMC, 2018).

Despite the existence of frameworks such as the National Disaster Risk Management Policy (2018), which emphasizes proactive risk reduction, mitigation, and preparedness, implementation gaps persist, resulting in a predominantly reactive approach reliant on post-disaster relief rather than preventive measures or integrated planning (NEMA, 2018; Cirella and Iyalomhe, 2018). Ineffective flood management is further hindered by weak institutional coordination, lax regulatory enforcement, insufficient mitigation funding, and the limited integration of disaster risk reduction into broader development policies, perpetuating vulnerabilities amid escalating climate threats (Adekola and Lamond, 2018; Oladokun and Proverbs, 2016). This study aims to address these shortcomings through the development of innovative, context-specific flood-resilient housing designs incorporating elevation, amphibious features, and sustainable materials, thereby fostering proactive adaptation, reducing displacement and economic losses, and aligning with national policies to enhance community resilience in Nigeria’s coastal and riverine regions.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective is to develop flood-resilient housing designs for Nigeria’s coastal and riverine communities. Specific objectives include:

1. To assess flooding challenges in these areas.
2. To review global resilient designs and sustainable materials.
3. To propose context-specific housing prototypes.
4. To evaluate alignment with Nigerian policies.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What are the primary flooding issues in Nigerian coastal and riverine communities?
2. What global designs and materials can be adapted?
3. How can proposed designs integrate sustainability and policy?
4. What are the potential benefits and challenges of implementation?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This thesis provides practical designs for architects, policymakers, and communities, reducing flood risks and promoting sustainable development. It aligns with SDGs 11 (Sustainable Cities) and 13 (Climate Action), offering a blueprint for resilience in developing countries. It also informs policy enhancements for better flood management.

1.6 Scope and Limitations

The study focuses on coastal (Lagos, Delta) and riverine (Niger Delta) areas, emphasizing design proposals. Limitations include reliance on secondary data and potential access issues to flood sites. Future empirical testing is recommended.

1.7 Definition of Terms

Flood-Resilient Housing: Structures designed to withstand or recover from flooding.

Coastal Communities: Areas along Nigeria’s coastline prone to sea-level rise.

Riverine Communities: Settlements near rivers affected by fluvial floods.