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EX-CONVICTS IN PLATEAU STATE: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Reintegration of ex-convicts into the society has been one of the most ongoing and multifactorial problems facing criminal justice systems in the world, and Nigeria is not an exception. In the Plateau State, which is in the north-central of Nigeria, the issue of post-incarceration reintegration is especially acute and is exacerbated by a poor security climate and strong ethnic and religious conflicts, high unemployment rates, and ineffective social support infrastructure. Ex-convicts people who have been through custodial imprisonment and have come out of the correctional institutions occupy a dangerous ground between their criminal history and an unclear future being neither reclaimed nor sufficiently provided by the state.
The correctional system in Nigeria is formally redone by the Nigerian Correctional Service Act of 2019 (which supersedes the previous Prison Act Cap). It was in form of P29, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 2004, which was established on the principle of rehabilitation. The Act changed the name of the Nigerian prisons to Correctional Centres and required a change of approach towards a more reformatory, rehabilitation and social reintegration oriented culture. Although this is the legislative intent, the practical reality in most states, including Plateau, demonstrates that there is always a massive difference between the desire to enact a policy and the actual results of the implementation (Nigerian Correctional Service, 2021).
Cyclical violence, displacement, and socioeconomic disenfranchisement in Plateau State, which houses more than four million people (National Population Commission, 2023 projection), make the reintegration of ex-convicts especially tense. The main custodial facility in the state, the Plateau State Correctional Centre in Jos has in the past been running well beyond its capacity. According to the reports given by the Nigerian Correctional Service, the Jos Medium Security Custodial Centre, which is designed to take about 500 inmates, regularly accommodates more than 1,200 individuals thousands of whom are awaiting trial (Nigerian Correctional Service Annual Report, 2022). This overcrowding highly restricts the ability of meaningful rehabilitation programming.
The ex-convict issues are multidimensional. They can encompass structural barriers, e.g., unemployment, housing insecurity, and stigma, and psychological issues, e.g., trauma, substance use disorders, mental health problems aggravated by the prison setting. These issues are not inherent to Nigeria, and the literature on the subject matter records high levels of recidivism reoffending by ex-prisoners without proper reintegration assistance (Petersilia, 2003; Farrall, 2004; Muntingh, 2012; Yukhnenko, Sridhar and Fazel, 2019).
According to Chukwuma and Alobo (2020), in the Nigerian context, ex-convicts in the southeast of Nigeria were rejected by communities, could not participate in any formal employment, and would engage in petty crime as a survival mechanism within several months after release. Likewise, Adepoju (2021) reported that ex-convicts in Lagos State had to face a so-called triple bind of stigma, poverty and institutional neglect which significantly predisposed them to recidivism. These results are also reminiscent of the situations in Plateau State, where the further stratification of inter-communal conflict and ethno-religious polarization complicate the process of social reintegration (Human Rights Watch, 2023).
The future of ex-convicts in Plateau state is however not totally hopeless. New civil society initiatives, religious-based rehabilitation efforts and the increased interest of international organizations in the correctional reform provide the possible ways to the better reintegration results. Over the past few years, the Plateau State Government has plans to undertake several reforms via its Ministry of Justice and in partnership with the Nigerian Correctional Service to enhance the pre-release preparation, vocational development, and community-based resettlement support (Plateau State Ministry of Justice, 2022). Other non-governmental groups like the Legal Defence and Assistance Project (LEDAP), the Prison Fellowship Nigeria and the Civil Society Legislative Advocacy Centre (CISLAC) have also participated in championing the rights and rehabilitation of former convicts throughout Nigeria (LEDAP, 2022; Prison Fellowship Nigeria, 2023).
It is on this background that this study is conducted to give a systematic review of the issues and opportunities of ex-convicts in Plateau State. It aims to create empirically based knowledge that can guide policy, practice and advocacy toward minimizing recidivism, enhancing reintegration as well as social cohesion in a state at the end of decades of conflict and underdevelopment.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Cases in which offenders are released out of correctional facilities without proper reintegration assistance is a significant issue of concern to the general society and human rights. In Plateau State, the structural issues that ex-convicts are faced with are compounded by high rates of youth unemployment of over 40 percent (National Bureau of Statistics, 2023), poverty levels, and persistent inter-communal violence that significantly lower the prospects of ex-convicts successfully getting back to normal.
The reformatory requirement of the Nigerian Correctional Service Act (2019) has been resonant, but the provision in Plateau State is in a very dismal state. In 2022, a correctional programming audit by the Policy and Legal Advocacy Centre (PLAC) of correctional centres in North-Central Nigeria identified that of the inmates, less than 15 percent in correctional centres in the area were enrolled in a structured vocational or educational program. On parole, ex-convicts in the state receive barely more than a token discharge allowance usually less than five thousand naira and are supposed to find their way in a highly hostile socioeconomic environment mainly on their own.
The stigmatization of ex-convicts in Plateau State is also especially high, considering the experience of inter-communal violence in this state, where crime and criminality are typically mixed with ethnic or religious identity (Higazi, 2021). Such conflation implies that not only an ex-convict returning to his or her community is seen as a criminal, but also can be seen through the prism of inter-group suspicion, which is even harder to overcome to gain acceptance in the community.
Recidivism in Nigeria, though its levels are officially underreported, are considered by the researchers of the correctional establishments to be high. Based on the assessment conducted by Okafor (2022), it is approximated that about 47 percent of the inmates released in Nigeria come back to the correctional institutions within three years of the release, which is also similar to the rates reported within the conditions of other developing countries. Anecdotal data related to the Plateau State, specifically, indicate that the issue of recidivism is also a major and increasing problem specifically among the young male former convicts aged 18-35 (Plateau State Ministry of Justice, 2022).
Despite the scale of this challenge, scholarly attention to the specific situation of ex-convicts in Plateau State remains limited. Most Nigerian studies on ex-convict reintegration have focused on the southern states or on the federal capital, leaving a significant gap in knowledge about north-central Nigeria. This study is designed to address that gap by producing a detailed, contextually sensitive account of the problems and prospects of ex-convicts in Plateau State.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The broad objective of this study is to examine the problems and prospects of ex-convicts in Plateau State, Nigeria. The specific objectives are to:
- Identify the major socioeconomic and psychological problems confronting ex-convicts in Plateau State upon release from correctional custody.
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Examine the extent of social stigmatization experienced by ex-convicts in Plateau State communities.
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Assess the effectiveness of existing state and non-state reintegration programs for ex-convicts in Plateau State.
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Identify the prospects for improved reintegration outcomes support systems.
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Make policy-relevant recommendations for reducing recidivism for ex-convicts in Plateau State.
1.4 Research Questions
The study is guided by the following research questions:
- What are the major socioeconomic problems faced by ex-convicts upon release from correctional facilities in Plateau State?
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To what extent does social stigmatization affect the reintegration of ex-convicts into Plateau State communities?
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How effective are existing reintegration programs in addressing the needs of ex-convicts in Plateau State?
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What opportunities exist for improving reintegration outcomes for ex-convicts in Plateau State?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study makes significant contributions at several levels. At the theoretical level, it contributes to ongoing debates about the applicability of Western criminological frameworks including labelling theory (Becker, 1963), strain theory (Merton, 1938), and desistance theory (Maruna, 2001) to non-Western, post-conflict contexts. By situating its analysis within the specific socioeconomic and cultural conditions of Plateau State, the study offers a contextually nuanced perspective that moves beyond the often acontextual generalizations of mainstream criminology.
At the policy level, the study provides empirical data that can directly inform the work of the Nigerian Correctional Service, the Plateau State Ministry of Justice, and relevant NGOs in designing, implementing, and evaluating reintegration programs. The findings may also be of interest to the National Human Rights Commission of Nigeria and to international bodies such as the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the International Centre for Prison Studies, both of which have ongoing programs aimed at improving correctional systems in West Africa.
At the practical level, the study contributes to the welfare of a population that is frequently overlooked in social policy discussions. Ex-convicts represent a vulnerable group whose successful reintegration is not only a matter of individual justice but also a public safety imperative. Research consistently shows that investment in reintegration support reduces recidivism, reduces costs to the criminal justice system, and promotes community safety (Travis, Solomon & Waul, 2001; Visher & Travis, 2003; La Vigne et al., 2008).
This study is also significant in the context of Plateau State’s broader peacebuilding efforts. Given the state’s history of inter-communal violence, successful reintegration of ex-convicts some of whom may have been implicated in, or victimized by, communal conflicts is essential to building a culture of peace, reconciliation, and social cohesion (Higazi, 2021; International Crisis Group, 2022).
1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study
This study focuses on ex-convicts in Plateau State, Nigeria, with particular attention to individuals who have been released from the Jos Medium Security Custodial Centre and the Pankshin Correctional Centre within the period 2018 to 2023. The study encompasses both male and female ex-convicts, although it is anticipated that the sample will be predominantly male, reflecting the demographic reality of incarceration in Nigeria, where women constitute less than 5 percent of the custodial population (Nigerian Correctional Service, 2022).
The geographical scope of the study includes Jos North, Jos South, and Barkin Ladi Local Government Areas, which together represent the urban and peri-urban communities where the majority of released inmates are resettled. The study does not extend to ex-convicts who have migrated out of Plateau State following release, nor does it address the experiences of those held in remand pending trial.
Thematically, the study focuses on reintegration challenges and opportunities, including employment, housing, family reunification, social stigma, psychological wellbeing, and access to institutional support. Issues of guilt determination, the quality of legal representation at trial, or the internal conditions of correctional facilities, while related, fall outside the scope of this study.
1.7 Limitations of the Study
This study acknowledges several methodological and contextual limitations. First, accessing ex-convicts as a research population presents practical challenges, as many individuals are reluctant to self-identify due to fear of stigmatization or further discrimination. Snowball sampling, while appropriate in this context, may produce a sample that over-represents individuals who are more socially connected or visible, potentially excluding the most marginalized ex-convicts.
Second, the security situation in Plateau State, characterized by periodic outbreaks of inter-communal violence and the activities of armed groups, may restrict field access to certain communities and may affect the willingness of participants to engage openly with researchers. The researcher acknowledges this as a potential source of bias.
Third, official data on recidivism, correctional programming, and post-release outcomes in Nigeria are known to be incomplete and inconsistently maintained (Okafor, 2022). The study will therefore triangulate official data with qualitative evidence, key informant interviews, and participant observation to produce a more comprehensive picture.
Finally, as a cross-sectional study, this research captures conditions at a specific point in time and cannot account for the dynamic, longitudinal nature of reintegration processes. Subsequent longitudinal research would be valuable in tracking reintegration outcomes over time.
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms
Ex-Convict: For the purposes of this study, an ex-convict refers to any individual who has been convicted of a criminal offence by a court of competent jurisdiction and who has served a custodial sentence in a Nigerian Correctional Centre, and has subsequently been released. This definition excludes persons who were acquitted, discharged without conviction, or who paid fines without serving a custodial sentence.
Reintegration: The process by which an ex-convict returns to, and is accepted as a participating member of, the community from which they were removed by incarceration. Reintegration encompasses employment, housing, family reunification, social relationships, psychological recovery, and civic participation.
Recidivism: The relapse of a previously convicted person into criminal behaviour, whether measured by rearrest, reconviction, or return to custodial care.
Stigmatization: The process by which ex-convicts are attributed a spoiled identity (Goffman, 1963) by community members, employers, government agencies, or other social actors, resulting in discrimination, exclusion, and reduced social standing.
Plateau State: A state in north-central Nigeria with its capital in Jos, known for its diverse population, history of inter-communal conflict, and significant correctional population.
Correctional Centre: The official designation, per the Nigerian Correctional Service Act (2019), for what were previously called prisons in Nigeria. These are facilities operated by the Nigerian Correctional Service for the custody and rehabilitation of persons convicted by courts, or awaiting trial.
1.9 Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One, the present chapter, provides an introduction to the study, including the background, statement of the problem, objectives, research questions, significance, scope, limitations, theoretical framework, and operational definitions.
Chapter Two presents a comprehensive review of relevant literature on ex-convict reintegration, covering global perspectives, African and Nigerian contexts, and specific considerations related to Plateau State. Chapter Three describes the research methodology, including research design, population, sampling procedures, data collection instruments, and data analysis methods. Chapter Four presents and discusses the findings of the study, organized thematically according to the research objectives. Chapter Five concludes the study with a summary of findings, conclusions, and policy-relevant recommendations.
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