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ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE NIGERIA POLICE FORCE IN COMBATING CULTISM IN RIVERS STATE
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Cultism is one of the most persistent and destabilising security threats confronting Rivers State and the broader Niger Delta region of Nigeria. What began as a campus-based phenomenon in the Nigerian university system has over the past three decades evolved into a complex, community-embedded criminal enterprise with devastating consequences for lives, livelihoods, and development across Rivers State. Scholars have consistently described cult groups, also referred to as secret cults, confraternities, or gangs as organised criminal youth associations whose activities include murder, armed robbery, kidnapping, rape, extortion, and drug trafficking (Nche, 2020; Ogele, Sarki, Solomon & Kaka, 2020). In Rivers State specifically, the proliferation and lethal rivalry of these groups has created what researchers aptly describe as “ungovernable spaces” zones where the authority of the state has effectively collapsed and where criminal violence operates without meaningful check (Ogele et al., 2020).
The scale of the cult menace in Rivers State is staggering by any measure. According to a report by SBM Intelligence (2020), more than 100 identifiable cult groups are active in the state. These include well-known formations such as the Deewell, Deebam, Icelanders, Greenlanders, Gberesaako Boys, and the Outlaws, each of which operates with hierarchical internal structures, defined territorial claims, and established criminal supply chains. SBM Intelligence documented that 639 persons were killed in gang-related violence in the state between May 2007 and May 2020, with approximately 73 per cent of these fatalities concentrated in the period between 2015 and 2020 indicating a sharp escalation of cult violence in recent years (SBM Intelligence, 2020). More recently, the Partnerships Initiatives in the Niger Delta (PIND) documented no fewer than 180 cult-related fatalities across Rivers State between January 2021 and December 2023, a figure widely regarded as a conservative undercount given pervasive underreporting (PIND, cited in Kashere Journal of Politics and International Relations, 2025).
The historical trajectory of cultism in Rivers State is well documented. Scholars trace the origins of contemporary gang cultism to the broader history of secret confraternities in Nigerian higher education, which were themselves transformed by the militarisation of Nigerian politics (Ogele et al., 2020). As university dropouts and graduates affiliated with campus cults entered communities and urban areas particularly in Port Harcourt. They brought their criminal networks and internecine rivalries with them. In Port Harcourt, early manifestations of street gang culture were known as “Panikers,” limited in scope and geography (Ogele et al., 2020). However, from the late 1990s and through the 2000s, these formations were dramatically reinvigorated by the influx of oil money, political patronage, and weapons associated with Niger Delta militancy, producing the sophisticated and heavily armed cult groups that now dominate the security landscape of the state (Nche, 2020; Ogele et al., 2020). PIND’s 2015 report had already noted that cult violence was on a rising trajectory in the Niger Delta since 2014 a trajectory that subsequent events have tragically confirmed.
The Nigeria Police Force (NPF) bears the primary constitutional responsibility for combating cultism and other forms of violent crime in Rivers State. Section 214 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria establishes the NPF as the principal law enforcement agency in the country, charged with the prevention and detection of crime, the apprehension of offenders, and the maintenance of public order. Rivers State falls under the Area Commands of the NPF, which in theory deploys police officers across the state’s 23 Local Government Areas. In practice, however, scholarship consistently reveals a vast gap between the constitutional mandate of the NPF and its operational capacity and effectiveness in combating organised crime, including cultism (Tete, 2021; Raphael, 2021; Oyewole, 2024, as cited in Kashere Journal of Politics and International Relations, 2025).
Research by Tete (2021) a landmark qualitative phenomenological study conducted specifically in Rivers State found that police officers themselves identified corruption, logistical deficits, lack of equipment, inadequate personnel, absence of community collaboration, and low morale as the primary factors undermining their ability to combat cult activities effectively. Tete’s study, which engaged 20 serving police officers in Rivers State through structured interviews, revealed that the NPF viewed cult groups as violent, well-organised, and constituting a severe threat to public safety yet remained consistently outmanoeuvred by them due to institutional limitations within the police itself. This finding resonates with broader scholarly assessments of policing in Nigeria, which have uniformly identified structural deficiencies as the fundamental constraint on police effectiveness (Raphael, 2021; Anzizi, 2024; RSIS International, 2023).
The structural challenges confronting the NPF are well-documented. According to data from the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS, 2023), crime incidents in Nigeria increased by 15.6 per cent between 2019 and 2022. The NPF operates with an estimated police-to-citizen ratio of approximately 1:540 well below the United Nations recommended ratio of 1:450 (UNODC, 2022). With a population of well over eight million people, Rivers State’s policing needs are severe, yet the number of operational police officers deployed in the state falls well short of what is required for effective law enforcement. Funding is equally problematic. Scholars have noted that the NPF received approximately ₦969.6 billion in the 2024 national budget, which, relative to Nigeria’s population and the scale of its security challenges, is inadequate particularly when compared to countries with smaller populations that invest significantly more in policing (Tandfonline, 2025). Transparency International (2022) ranked Nigeria 150th out of 180 countries on the Corruption Perception Index, with the NPF identified as the most corrupt institution in the Nigerian polity a finding that directly implicates institutional integrity in the failure to suppress cult activities in Rivers State (Transparency International, 2022, as cited in Wukari International Studies Journal, 2024).
Cultism is one such phenomenon that has become one of the most relentless and disruptive security issues facing the Rivers State and the general Niger Δ territory in Nigeria. It started as a university-level phenomenon in the Nigerian university system but has over the last thirty years developed into a more intricate, community rooted criminal organization that causes profound damage to lives, livelihoods and developmental paths throughout Rivers State. Cult groups, also known as secret cults, confraternity, and gangs, are invariably described by scholars as organised criminal youth groups that are involved in murder, armed robbery, kidnapping, rape, extortion, and drug trafficking (Nche, 2020; Ogele, Sarki, Solomon & Kaka, 2020). In Rivers State, the contagion and deadly rivalry between these populations have created so-called ungovernable spaces, the areas of territory where state authority has failed and where violence perpetrated by criminals has become uncontrolled (Ogele et al., 2020).
The cult menace in Rivers State is of mindboggling proportions going by any measure. According to SBM Intelligence (2020), there are more than 100 distinguishable cults that are currently active in the state, including such formations as the Deewell, Deebam, Icelanders, Greenlanders, Gberesaako Boys, and the Outlaws. Both teams are hierarchical internally, have defined territorial boundaries, and organized crime supply networks. Also, SBM Intelligence documents that between May 2007 and May 2020, 639 people were violently murdered in cults, and about 73 percent of violence occurred between 2015 and 2020, which is indicative of a sudden upsurge in recent years (SBM Intelligence, 2020). According to the recent statistics given by the Partnerships Initiatives in the Niger Delta (PIND), at least 180 cult-related deaths have been reported in Rivers State between January 2021 and December 2023, which is a figure that is widely regarded as an undercount given the prevalence of underreporting (PIND, cited in Kashere Journal of Politics and International Relations, 2025).
The history of cultism development in Rivers State is thoroughly covered. Theorists attribute the roots of modern gang cultism to the broader tradition of secret confraternities in the Nigerian tertiary education system that were transformed by militarisation of Nigerian politics (Ogele et al., 2020). University dropouts and graduates who joined campus cults brought with them their criminal networks and internecine rivalries in to the communities and urban centres, especially in Port ‛Harcourt. The initial forms of street-gangs in Port-Harcourt went by the name of Panikers which had a restricted scope and domain (Ogele et al., 2020). Nevertheless, the late 1990s and the 2000s saw a marked resurgence of these formation with the influx of oil gains, political favours and weaponry associated with the Niger Delta militancy, thus giving rise to sophisticated, well-armed cult groups that are today dictating the security environment of the state (Nche, 2020; Ogele et al., 2020). The development of cult violence in the Niger Delta as already noted in the 2015 report by PIND was on an upward trend since 2014–a climb that later developments would tragically confirm.
The Nigeria Police Force (NPF) has the leading constitutional role of combating cultism and other expressions of violent crime in Rivers State. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria of 1999, Section 214, establishes the NPF as the principal law-enforcement agency in the country and, therefore, charged with the responsibility of law and order, crime prevention and crime detection, and offender apprehension. Rivers State falls under the jurisdiction of the Area Commands of the NPF, which in theory, deploys the police officers to the 23 local government areas of this state. As a matter of fact, though, scholarship shows that there is frequently a significant disparity between the constitutional mandate of the NPF and its capacity and effectiveness in tackling organised crime, such as cultism (Tete, 2021; Raphael, 2021; Oyewole, 2024, as cited in Kashere Journal of Politics and International Relations, 2025).
In a qualitative phenomenological study, the first of its kind carried out by Tete (2021), the police officers themselves in Rivers State identified corruption, logistical shortages, scarcity of equipment, inadequate staffing, deficiency of community working, and low morale as the main reasons that inhibited their performance in combating cult activities in the State. The research involved 20 serving police officers in Rivers State in structured interviews and showed that NPF regarded cult groups as violent, organised and posing a severe threat to civilians safety-yet were systematically out-manoeuvred by the cult groups, which is inherent in the police itself. This observation echoes the general academic evaluations of policing in Nigeria, which have consistently found structural drawbacks to be the primary limitation to police performance (Raphael, 2021; Anzizi, 2024; RSIS International).
The organizational issues the NPF faces are extensively recorded. The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS, 2023) claims that the number of crime incidents in Nigeria grew by 15.6 percent over the course of 201912022. The approximate police to citizen ratio in the NPF is about 1:540; quite large in comparison with the recommended proportion of 1:450 (UNODC, 2022). Rivers state has a population of more than eight million; therefore, its policing needs are dire; but the number of the current police officers that are working in the state is much less than what is needed to enforce the law. The problem of funding is also problematic. According to scholars, the NPF was allocated about N969.6 3 billion in the 2024 national budget- which is insufficient especially compared to the population of Nigeria and the magnitude of its security challenges- especially when compared with other countries with lower population but spend much more in policing (Tandfonline, 2025). Transparency International (2022) placed Nigeria at position 150 on a list of 180 countries based on its Corruption Perception Index, and the NPF is the most corrupt institution in the Nigerian polity, an observation that directly attributes the institutional integrity to the inability to stop cult activities in Rivers State (Transparency International, 2022, as cited in Wukari International Studies Journal, 2024).
The problem is further complicated by the penetration of cult groups into political and law enforcement structures. As reported by The Guardian Nigeria (2023), cult groups in Rivers State have infiltrated government and law enforcement agencies, entrenching their control of the state — a dynamic dramatically evidenced during the 2023 general elections. This kind of structural infiltration represents a qualitatively different and more dangerous dimension of the cult problem, as it undermines the very institutions charged with combating cultism. Research by Nche (2020) on faith-based organisations’ responses to cultism in Rivers State specifically documented that political patronage of cult groups by politicians who use cult members as political thugs and electoral enforcers is a major sustaining factor of the cult menace. When the police are themselves compromised by political associations with cult groups, the capacity of the institution to effectively combat cultism is severely degraded.
Despite the gravity of the situation, the academic literature reveals a paradox: while cultism in Rivers State has received growing scholarly attention — particularly regarding its causes, patterns, and socioeconomic drivers (Nche, 2020; Ogele et al., 2020; Benson, 2022) the specific question of the effectiveness of the Nigeria Police Force in combating cultism in the state has received relatively limited systematic empirical investigation. Most policing studies in Nigeria have either focused on general crime control challenges or on other states, leaving Rivers State as an underexplored context for police effectiveness research in relation to cultism specifically (Tete, 2021; Anzizi, 2024). This study is therefore designed to fill this gap.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Rivers State is among the most cult-violence affected state in Nigeria. Anti-cult campaigns by successive state governments and federal security agencies, such as the NPF, anti-cult laws, and states of emergency in crime-plagued Local Government Areas have been waged against the cult menace, however, despite the apparent success, the menace has not eased during several documented periods, instead it has intensified (Ogele et al., 2020; SBM Intelligence, 2020; Guardian Nigeria, 2023). This disconnect between effort and result in the institutions brings about one of the basic research questions: how does the Nigeria Police Force perform in relation to the fight against cultism in Rivers State, and what are the factors that explain the constraints of that performance level?
This empirical evidence indicates high failures in the effectiveness of the police. Tete (2021) discovered that police officers in Rivers state themselves have admitted that their attempt to fight cult activities had failed due to corruption, poor logism, deficiency of community intelligence, and low morale, as limiters. Raphael (2021) also reported that the NPF experiences institutional difficulties such as the absence of modern equipments, centralisation of command and ineffective statutory frameworks which have significantly undermined crime prevention and detection in the entire Nigeria, including Rivers State. Another obstacle is the institutional distrust trap found by Tandfonline (2024): since most members of the Rivers state community do not trust the police, they fail to report cases of cults, thus depriving the police of the necessary information they can use to organize effective anti-cult operations.
Moreover, the intrusion of political interests in the work of cults in Rivers State and the purported infiltration of law enforcement by the cult networks (Nche, 2020; Guardian Nigeria, 2023) is a matter of serious concern that cannot be addressed only by means of the incremental allocation of resources. The literature on the police response to cultism in Rivers State is increasingly identified with a view that there is a structural deficit of the police, institutional corruption, combined with community lack of trust, a combination that is in urgent required empirically informed scholarly response. This is a research that addresses this need.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study is to assess the effectiveness of the Nigeria Police Force in combating cultism in Rivers State. The specific objectives are:
- To examine the nature and extent of cult activities in Rivers State.
- To assess the strategies and approaches adopted by the Nigeria Police Force in combating cultism in Rivers State.
- To identify the factors that constrain the effectiveness of the Nigeria Police Force in combating cultism in Rivers State.
- To determine the impact of police strategies on the reduction of cult-related violence in Rivers State.
- To recommend measures for improving the effectiveness of the Nigeria Police Force in combating cultism in Rivers State.
1.4 Research Questions
The study is guided by the following research questions:
- What is the nature and extent of cult activities in Rivers State?
- What strategies and approaches has the Nigeria Police Force adopted in combating cultism in Rivers State?
- What factors constrain the effectiveness of the Nigeria Police Force in combating cultism in Rivers State?
- What has been the impact of police strategies on the reduction of cult-related violence in Rivers State?
- What measures can improve the effectiveness of the Nigeria Police Force in combating cultism in Rivers State?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study is significant at several levels. Academically, it contributes to the relatively sparse body of empirical research that specifically examines police effectiveness in combating cultism in Rivers State, addressing a gap identified by Tete (2021) and Nche (2020). It enriches the theoretical literature on policing and organised crime in Sub-Saharan Africa by providing context-specific empirical data from a high-violence state in the Niger Delta region.
From a policy standpoint, the findings of this study will be of value to the Rivers State Government, the Nigeria Police Force, the Police Service Commission, the Ministry of Police Affairs, and relevant security sector reform actors — both domestic and international — including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the German development agency GIZ, which have been engaged in police reform support in Nigeria (Tandfonline, 2024). The study’s evidence-based recommendations can inform both operational and structural reforms of policing in Rivers State, as well as legislative responses to the cult menace.
Practically, community leaders, civil society organisations, and residents of cult-affected communities in Rivers State stand to benefit from a study that not only documents the failures of current anti-cult policing but also identifies actionable pathways towards a more effective security architecture. The study is particularly timely given that current scholarly discourse is increasingly calling for a re-evaluation of the centralised federal policing model in Nigeria, with growing advocacy for state police that could be more responsive to localised security challenges such as cultism in Rivers State (Kashere Journal, 2025; Anzizi, 2024).
The current research is important in various aspects. Academically, it supplements the comparatively thin body of empirical research studies which study police efficacy in countering cultism in Rivers State, hence filling the gap that Tete (2021) and Nche (2020) identify. It also adds to the theoretical discussions on policing and organised crime in Sub-Saharan Africa with the provision of context-based empirical data based on a high-violence jurisdiction in the Niger Delta region.
The policy-wise, the findings are useful to the Rivers State Government, the Nigeria Police Force, the Police Service Commission, the Ministry of Police Affairs, and other stakeholders in the security sector reform, both domestic and international, such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the German development agency GIZ, which have been involved in police reform efforts in Nigeria (Tandfonline, 2024). The evidence-based recommendations will be able to inform operational and structural changes in the policing of Rivers State and legislative initiatives to combat the cult menace.
In practice, the community leaders, civil society organisations, and the people living in the cult-impacted communities, Rivers State will benefit when a study is conducted to document the inadequacy of the current anti-cult policing practices and, at the same time, to identify the pathways that can be taken to establish a more effective security architecture. The research is also timely considering that the current academic discourse demands a reconsideration of the centralized federal policing framework of Nigeria, and there is a growing trend to support the concept of state police that would be more effective in dealing with localized security problems such as cultism in Rivers State (Kashere Journal, 2025; Anzizi, 2024).
1.6 Scope of the Study
The study is geographically focused on Rivers State, Nigeria, with specific attention to communities and Local Government Areas that have been identified in the existing literature as high-cult-activity zones, including Port Harcourt City, Obio-Akpor, Gokana, and Ogba-Egbema-Ndoni Local Government Areas. The study covers the period from 2015 to 2024, which coincides with the period of documented escalation of cult violence in the state and encompasses the implementation of various anti-cult police operations during this era. Thematically, the study is scoped to address cult activities, NPF anti-cult strategies, institutional constraints on police effectiveness, and community-police relations as they relate to combating cultism.
1.7 Operational Definition of Terms
Cultism: The organised and criminal activities of secret groups
Nigeria Police Force (NPF): The principal law enforcement agency of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, established under Section 214 of the 1999 Constitution.
Effectiveness: The degree to which the Nigeria Police Force successfully achieves its stated mandate.
Anti-Cult Operations: Planned and targeted law enforcement activities undertaken by the NPF.
Community Policing: A policing philosophy that promotes organisational strategies and partnerships between law enforcement and community members to address crime and insecurity proactively.
Institutional Distrust Trap: A concept introduced by Tandfonline (2024) to describe the self-defeating cycle in which public distrust in the NPF leads to low crime reporting, which in turn undermines police investigations and encourages communities to seek extrajudicial crime control alternatives.
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