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A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY OF MALE AND FEMALE FARMERS IN RURAL COMMUNITIES OF ENUGU STATE

Abstract

This thesis explores gender differentials in agricultural productivity through a comparative case study of male and female farmers in rural communities of Enugu State, Nigeria. Despite agriculture being a cornerstone of Nigeria’s economy, persistent gender disparities hinder optimal productivity, particularly affecting female farmers who face barriers in access to land, credit, inputs, and extension services. Drawing on primary data from selected rural communities and secondary sources, the study examines the extent of these differentials, their underlying causes, and potential interventions for gender-responsive agriculture. Findings reveal significant gaps, with female farmers exhibiting lower productivity due to unequal resource allocation and socio-cultural constraints. The research contributes to policy recommendations aimed at bridging these gaps to enhance food security, rural livelihoods, and sustainable development in Enugu State. Keywords: Gender differentials, agricultural productivity, Enugu State, Nigeria, female farmers.

This research investigates gender disparities in agricultural productivity through a comparative analysis of male and female farmers in rural Enugu State, Nigeria. While agriculture remains fundamental to Nigeria’s economy, persistent gender inequalities constrain productivity, disproportionately disadvantaging female farmers through limited access to land, credit, agricultural inputs, and extension services. Utilizing primary data from selected rural communities alongside secondary sources, this study assesses the magnitude of these disparities, their structural drivers, and feasible policy interventions for gender-inclusive agricultural development. Results indicate substantial productivity gaps attributable to inequitable resource distribution and entrenched socio-cultural norms. The study proposes evidence-based policy measures to address these disparities, thereby promoting food security, rural economic resilience, and sustainable agricultural growth in Enugu State.

Keywords: gender disparities, agricultural productivity, Enugu State, Nigeria, female farmers.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Agriculture continues to serve as a cornerstone of Nigeria’s economy, contributing approximately 24-25% to the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in recent years and providing livelihoods for a significant portion of the population (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2024; Oxford Business Group, 2024). While the sector employs around 35-38% of the total labor force nationally, its role is even more pronounced in rural areas, where over 70% of households engage in crop farming activities and agriculture remains the primary source of employment and income (World Bank, 2023; Statista, 2024). In Enugu State, situated in southeastern Nigeria, agriculture is largely subsistence-oriented, dominated by smallholder farmers cultivating staple crops such as cassava, yam, rice, maize, vegetables, and cocoyam. These crops not only sustain rural livelihoods but also contribute to regional food security and local markets (Egwue et al., 2025).

Despite its economic importance, agricultural productivity in Nigeria and particularly in Enugu State is constrained by persistent gender differentials. Gender plays a critical role in determining access to productive resources, technologies, extension services, and decision-making power, resulting in unequal outcomes for male and female farmers (Doss, 2025). Women constitute a substantial share of the agricultural workforce estimated at 40-50% nationally and often higher in rural subsistence farming, yet they consistently face systemic barriers that limit their productivity (FAO, 2023; World Bank, 2024).

Globally and in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), gender gaps in agricultural productivity are well-established, with women farmers producing 20-30% less per hectare than men on comparable plots, primarily due to disparities in access to inputs such as fertilizers, improved seeds, credit, and labor (UN Women, 2019; FAO, 2023). In Nigeria, these gaps are amplified by cultural norms, patriarchal land tenure systems, and economic inequalities. Studies indicate that female-managed plots yield approximately 20-30% less than male-managed ones, attributable to differences in input intensity, plot size, and management practices (Oseni et al., 2015; Slavchevska et al., 2024). In Enugu State, where cassava is a dominant crop, women own significantly less land (around 16.7% versus 65% for men), leading to lower investment in improved practices and reduced yields (Egwue et al., 2025).

The historical roots of these gender disparities trace back to pre-colonial complementary roles, where women often controlled certain crops and trade, evolving under colonial influences that reinforced patriarchal structures. British colonial policies prioritized male farmers for cash crop production (e.g., cocoa, palm oil) and extension services, marginalizing women to subsistence farming and domestic roles (Mba, 1982; Okome, 2000). This shift entrenched unequal access to land inheritance, education, and markets, patterns that persist in customary laws today. Post-independence efforts have aimed at gender equity, yet socio-cultural norms continue to perpetuate differentials.

Recent analyses emphasize that closing gender gaps could significantly boost productivity and align with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 2 (Zero Hunger). In West Africa, including Nigeria, women may exhibit advantages in certain crops (e.g., pulses) but disadvantages in cereals, driven by resource returns rather than inherent differences (Bambio, 2025). Across SSA, women’s farms are on average 24% less productive than men’s when controlling for farm size, largely due to unequal resource access (FAO, 2024).

This thesis undertakes a comparative case study in rural communities of Enugu State to examine these gender differentials in depth. It focuses on key productivity metrics yield per hectare, income generation, technology adoption, and resource access highlighting how socio-cultural, economic, and institutional factors shape outcomes for male and female farmers. By addressing localized gaps, the study aims to inform gender-responsive policies that enhance overall agricultural productivity, rural livelihoods, and food security in the region

Agriculture continues to serve as a cornerstone of Nigeria’s economy, contributing approximately 24-25% to the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in recent years and providing livelihoods for a significant portion of the population (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2024; Oxford Business Group, 2024). While the sector employs around 35-38% of the total labor force nationally, its role is even more pronounced in rural areas, where over 70% of households engage in crop farming activities and agriculture remains the primary source of employment and income (World Bank, 2023; Statista, 2024). In Enugu State, situated in southeastern Nigeria, agriculture is largely subsistence-oriented, dominated by smallholder farmers cultivating staple crops such as cassava, yam, rice, maize, vegetables, and cocoyam. These crops not only sustain rural livelihoods but also contribute to regional food security and local markets (Egwue et al., 2025).

Despite its economic importance, agricultural productivity in Nigeria and particularly in Enugu State is constrained by persistent gender differentials. Gender plays a critical role in determining access to productive resources, technologies, extension services, and decision-making power, resulting in unequal outcomes for male and female farmers (Doss, 2025). Women constitute a substantial share of the agricultural workforce, estimated at 40-50% nationally and often higher in rural subsistence farming, yet they consistently face systemic barriers that limit their productivity (FAO, 2023; World Bank, 2024).

Globally and in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), gender gaps in agricultural productivity are well-established, with women farmers producing 20-30% less per hectare than men on comparable plots, primarily due to disparities in access to inputs such as fertilizers, improved seeds, credit, and labor (UN Women, 2019; FAO, 2023). In Nigeria, these gaps are amplified by cultural norms, patriarchal land tenure systems, and economic inequalities. Studies indicate that female-managed plots yield approximately 20-30% less than male-managed ones, attributable to differences in input intensity, plot size, and management practices (Oseni et al., 2015; Slavchevska et al., 2024). In Enugu State, where cassava is a dominant crop, women own significantly less land, around 16.7% versus 65% for men, leading to lower investment in improved practices and reduced yields (Egwue et al., 2025).

The historical roots of these gender disparities trace back to pre-colonial complementary roles, where women often controlled certain crops and trade, evolving under colonial influences that reinforced patriarchal structures. British colonial policies prioritized male farmers for cash crop production (e.g., cocoa, palm oil) and extension services, marginalizing women to subsistence farming and domestic roles (Mba, 1982; Okome, 2000). This shift entrenched unequal access to land inheritance, education, and markets, patterns that persist in customary laws today. Post-independence efforts have aimed at gender equity, yet socio-cultural norms continue to perpetuate differentials.

Recent analyses emphasize that closing gender gaps could significantly boost productivity and align with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 2 (Zero Hunger). In West Africa, including Nigeria, women may exhibit advantages in certain crops (e.g., pulses) but disadvantages in cereals, driven by resource returns rather than inherent differences (Bambio, 2025). Across SSA, women’s farms are on average 24% less productive than men’s when controlling for farm size, largely due to unequal resource access (FAO, 2024).

This thesis undertakes a comparative case study in rural communities of Enugu State to examine these gender differentials in depth. It focuses on key productivity metrics yield per hectare, income generation, technology adoption, and resource access highlighting how socio-cultural, economic, and institutional factors shape outcomes for male and female farmers. By addressing localized gaps, the study aims to inform gender-responsive policies that enhance overall agricultural productivity, rural livelihoods, and food security in the region.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Despite efforts to advance gender parity in agricultural sectors, pronounced disparities persist within Enugu State, manifesting in suboptimal agricultural output and compromised food security. Comparative analyses indicate female-headed households experience significantly lower food security than their male-headed counterparts, attributable to systemic advantages in male access to education, credit facilities, and agricultural extension services (Ayogu et al., 2025). Structural barriers further constrain female agricultural participation, with land ownership data revealing 83.3% of women farmers lack formal land tenure compared to 35% of male farmers, forcing reliance on precarious leasing arrangements that deter long-term investment (Egwue et al., 2025).

These inequities perpetuate cyclical poverty in rural communities, wherein constrained female agricultural productivity suppresses household incomes and regional development trajectories. Parallel examinations of Anambra State demonstrate analogous gendered land access disparities correlating with diminished rice production capacity (Onubogu, 2023). Absent deliberate policy interventions, such gaps risk exacerbation, thereby jeopardizing national agricultural modernization objectives. This research gap underscores the exigency for localized empirical inquiry employing comparative case methodologies to elucidate Enugu-specific causal mechanisms.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The general objective is to explore gender differentials in agricultural productivity among male and female farmers in rural communities of Enugu State, Nigeria.

The specific objectives are to:

1. Examine the extent of gender disparities in access to agricultural resources such as land, credit, and inputs.
2. Analyze the impact of these disparities on productivity levels in key crops like cassava and rice.
3. Identify socio-cultural and economic factors contributing to gender differentials.
4. Propose policy recommendations for enhancing gender equity in agriculture.

1.4 Research Questions

1. To what extent do gender disparities exist in access to agricultural resources in rural Enugu State?
2. How do these disparities affect the productivity of male and female farmers?
3. What socio-cultural and economic factors perpetuate gender differentials in agriculture?
4. What strategies can be implemented to bridge the gender gap in agricultural productivity?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

1. There is no significant difference in access to land and credit between male and female farmers in Enugu State.
2. Gender disparities do not significantly impact agricultural productivity levels.
3. Socio-cultural factors have no influence on gender differentials in farming practices.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study is significant as it provides empirical evidence on gender dynamics in Enugu State’s agriculture, informing policymakers, NGOs, and extension services on targeted interventions. By highlighting gaps, it contributes to reducing food insecurity, as male-headed households are more secure due to better resource access (Ayogu et al., 2025). Academically, it enriches literature on gender in African agriculture, building on global insights (Doss, 2025). For farmers, it advocates for equitable policies, potentially increasing overall productivity by 20-30% if gaps are closed (UN Women, 2019).

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study is delimited to rural communities in Enugu State, focusing on male and female smallholder farmers engaged in crop production. It covers key aspects like resource access, productivity metrics, and socio-economic factors, using a comparative case study approach.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

Potential limitations include respondent bias in self-reported data, seasonal variations in productivity, and access challenges in remote areas. However, these are mitigated through triangulation and ethical data collection.

1.9 Definition of Terms

• Gender Differentials: Variations in opportunities, resources, and outcomes between males and females.
• Agricultural Productivity: Output per unit of input, measured by yield per hectare or income.
• Rural Communities: Areas outside urban centers in Enugu State, reliant on subsistence farming.

References

Ayogu, C. J., Onyenekwe, C. S., Egwue, O. L., & Ezeh, F. (2025). Determinants of food security of female and male headed farming households in Enugu State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension. https://www.aesonnigeria.org/ajm/index.php/jae/article/view/5238

Bambio, Y. (2025). Gender differences in agricultural productivity: Puzzling evidence from West Africa. World Development, 187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2024.106567

Doss, C. R. (2025). Gender and agricultural productivity. Annual Review of Resource Economics. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-112923-094322

Egwue, O. L., Olutumise, A. I., Nnadi, C. L., Anugwo, S. C., Bello, T. O., Akinrotimi, A. F., & Onyenekwe, C. S. (2025). Gender disparities in land ownership and their effects on cassava productivity: Evidence from Enugu State, Nigeria. Kronika Journal. https://kronika.ac/wp-content/uploads/25-KKJ2873.pdf

Onubogu, O. H. (2023). Gender differences in agricultural productivity among rice farmers in Anambra State, Nigeria: Drivers and strategies for a gender responsive agriculture. Semantic Scholar. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Gender-Differences-in-Agricultural-Productivity-in-Onubogu/c6b0ef8c18fd9655720a1a95e415ca41634fe000

UN Women. (2019). The gender gap in agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa: Causes, costs and solutions (Policy Brief No. 11). https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2019/UN-Women-Policy-brief-11-The-gender-gap-in-agricultural-productivity-in-sub-Saharan-Africa-en.pdf