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CULTURAL PRACTICES AND THE PERSISTENCE OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION AS A FORM OF CHILD ABUSE: A CASE STUDY OF AFIKPO NORTH AND AFIKPO SOUTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS, EBONYI STATE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Female genital mutilation (FGM), widely recognised by the World Health Organization as a fundamental violation of the rights of girls and women, continues to endure in certain Nigerian communities as a deeply entrenched cultural rite (World Health Organization, 2020). In Afikpo North and Afikpo South Local Government Areas of Ebonyi State, this practice remains one of the most persistent forms of physical child abuse despite national legislation and decades of advocacy. Performed primarily on girls aged between infancy and 15 years, FGM in Afikpo involves the partial or total removal of external female genitalia for non-medical reasons, often justified as a marker of ethnic identity, purity, and readiness for marriage (Okeke et al., 2012; Adewole et al., 2022).

The Afikpo people, predominantly of the Ehugbo ethnic group, regard the procedure as an indispensable initiation into womanhood and a prerequisite for social acceptance. Community elders and traditional circumcisers (known locally as ndi ogo) maintain that uncircumcised females bring shame upon their families and risk exclusion from marriage, inheritance, and communal titles (Ezeome et al., 2021). A 2023 multi-community study across Ebonyi State reported that Afikpo North and South recorded prevalence rates exceeding 74% among women aged 15–49, significantly higher than the state average of 58.2% and the national figure of 19.9% (National Population Commission [Nigeria] & ICF, 2019; UNICEF Nigeria, 2023).

Cultural beliefs reinforce the practice through powerful social sanctions. Refusal invites ostracism, labelling of the girl as onye osu (outcast), or accusations of moral laxity (Nwagu & Nwagu, 2020). Grandmothers and mothers-in-law frequently act as gatekeepers, insisting that the tradition must be upheld to preserve family honour and ensure the girl’s future marital prospects (Ahanonu & Victor, 2014). Religious misinterpretation particularly the erroneous linkage of FGM with Igbo customary law or Christian purity further complicates abandonment efforts (Okafor et al., 2022).

Health consequences are severe and lifelong. Immediate risks include haemorrhage, shock, and infection, while long-term complications encompass chronic pain, obstetric fistula, infertility, and heightened maternal mortality (WHO, 2020; Berg & Underland, 2013). In Afikpo, traditional birth attendants report that women with Type III FGM (infibulation, though rare in the area) experience prolonged labour and higher rates of caesarean delivery (Ezebialu et al., 2019). Despite these dangers, community resistance to change remains strong, with many viewing anti-FGM campaigns as cultural imperialism (Chukwu et al., 2021).

Legal frameworks exist but enforcement is weak. The Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act 2015 explicitly criminalises FGM nationwide, yet no prosecution has been recorded in Afikpo since its enactment (Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Development, 2023). Traditional rulers and community leaders often mediate privately, protecting practitioners from arrest (Amusan et al., 2022). The persistence of the practice thus reflects not merely ignorance but a complex interplay of identity, power, and social control (Onyango, 2020; Mudege et al., 2024).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Although Nigeria enacted a national ban on FGM a decade ago, the practice flourishes openly in Afikpo North and Afikpo South, where more than seven out of ten girls still undergo cutting before age 15 (UNICEF Nigeria, 2023). Cultural obligation overrides both law and health evidence; families fear social exclusion more than legal consequences. Grandmothers and mothers-in-law wield decisive influence, while young mothers often lack the authority to refuse (Ahanonu & Victor, 2014; Ezeome et al., 2021). Traditional circumcisers continue operating with impunity, and community leaders resist external intervention as an attack on Ehugbo identity (Nwagu & Nwagu, 2020). Consequently, thousands of girls annually suffer irreversible harm classified internationally as child abuse, yet local discourse frames it as protection and honour (WHO, 2020; Chukwu et al., 2021).

1.3 Objectives of the Study

General Objective To investigate how cultural practices sustain female genital mutilation as a form of child abuse in Afikpo North and Afikpo South Local Government Areas of Ebonyi State.

Specific Objectives

1. To document the cultural beliefs, social pressures, and decision-making processes that perpetuate FGM in the study area.
2. To examine the roles of different actors (grandmothers, traditional rulers, circumcisers, religious leaders) in maintaining the practice.
3. To explore community perceptions of law, health risks, and alternative rites of passage.
4. To propose culturally sensitive strategies for accelerating abandonment.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This research offers the first in-depth ethnographic examination of FGM persistence in the Afikpo cultural zone since the 2015 national ban. Findings will guide Ebonyi State government, UNICEF, and local NGOs in designing interventions that respect cultural identity while protecting girls’ rights (UNICEF Nigeria, 2023). By identifying internal change agents and acceptable alternatives, the study aims to reduce prevalence by at least 30% within a decade, preventing thousands of unnecessary mutilations (Mudege et al., 2024). Academically, it contributes to the global literature on norm change in high-prevalence, low-enforcement settings (Onyango, 2020).

1.5 Research Questions

1. What specific cultural beliefs and social sanctions sustain FGM in Afikpo North and South?
2. Who are the primary decision-makers and influencers in a girl’s circumcision?
3. How do community members reconcile the practice with national law and documented health risks?
4. What alternative rites or incentives could replace FGM without eroding cultural identity?

1.6 Hypotheses

H₀₁: Cultural beliefs and social pressures have no significant influence on the continuation of FGM in Afikpo communities. H₀₂: Involvement of grandmothers and traditional authorities shows no significant correlation with FGM prevalence.

1.7 Scope and Delimitation

The study focuses exclusively on female genital mutilation/cutting as practised among the Ehugbo people of Afikpo North and Afikpo South LGAs in 2025. It examines cultural dimensions rather than medical procedures in detail and is limited to girls aged 0–15 years.

1.8 Definition of Key Terms

• Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): The partial or total removal of external female genitalia or other injury to female genital organs for non-medical reasons (WHO, 2020).
• Cultural Practices: Beliefs, values, and rituals that define Ehugbo identity and social order.
• Child Abuse: Any act that causes physical harm to a girl under 18, including culturally motivated cutting (UNICEF, 2006).
• Afikpo North and South LGAs: Two contiguous local government areas in northern Ebonyi State, home to the Ehugbo (Afikpo) people.

References

Adewole, O. A., Akpa, O. M., & Somefun, O. D. (2022). Female genital mutilation in Nigeria: A cross-sectional study of prevalence and determinants. African Health Sciences, 22(1), 287–298. https://doi.org/10.4314/ahs.v22i1.35

Ahanonu, E. L., & Victor, O. (2014). Mothers’ perceptions of female genital mutilation. Health Education Research, 29(4), 683–695. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyt118

Amusan, L., Oladeji, O., & Akinyemi, O. (2022). Enforcement of anti-FGM laws in Nigeria: Challenges and prospects. Journal of Law and Society, 15(2), 112–130.

Berg, R. C., & Underland, V. (2013). The obstetric consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obstetrics and Gynecology International, 2013, Article 496564. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/496564

Chukwu, N. E., Onyekwere, E. O., & Eze, C. C. (2021). Cultural imperialism or child protection? Community responses to anti-FGM campaigns in south-east Nigeria. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 25(5), 78–89.

Ezeome, I. V., Ezegwui, H. U., Iyoke, C. A., & Oguanuo, T. C. (2021). Perception and practice of female genital cutting in a rural community in southern Nigeria. African Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, 50(1), 45–52.

Ezebialu, I. U., Okafor, C. I., & Ezenyeaku, C. C. (2019). Obstetric outcome of infibulated women in south-east Nigeria. Tropical Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 36(2), 210–215.

Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Development. (2023). National strategy to end female genital mutilation 2023–2027. Abuja: FMWASD.

Mudege, N. N., Makunike-Chikwinya, B., & Mdege, N. D. (2024). Understanding the persistence of female genital cutting in high-prevalence communities: A social norms perspective. Social Science & Medicine, 345, Article 116678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116678

National Population Commission [Nigeria] & ICF. (2019). Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey 2018. Abuja, Nigeria, and Rockville, Maryland, USA: NPC and ICF.

Nwagu, E. N., & Nwagu, E. K. (2020). Female genital mutilation in Igbo land: The role of traditional institutions. Journal of African Cultural Studies, 32(4), 401–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/13696815.2020.1723467

Okafor, C. B., Oko, U. M., & Eze, J. I. (2022). Religious leaders and the fight against female genital mutilation in Ebonyi State. Journal of Religion and Health, 61(3), 2105–2121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-021-01456-8

Okeke, T. C., Anyaehie, U. S. B., & Ezenyeaku, C. C. K. (2012). An overview of female genital mutilation in Nigeria. Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research, 2(1), 70–73. https://doi.org/10.4103/2141-9248.96942

Onyango, P. (2020). Ending female genital mutilation: A strategy for Africa. UNICEF Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office.

UNICEF Nigeria. (2023). Female genital mutilation in Nigeria: 2023 situation analysis. Abuja: UNICEF.

World Health Organization. (2020). Female genital mutilation: Key facts. https://www.who.int/news-