COMPLETE SCHOOL PROJECT TOPICS & MATERIALS :
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Mass media is communication that is to a large group, or groups, of people in a short time. This can be written, spoken or broadcast communication. Some of the most popular forms of mass media are newspapers, magazines, radio, advertisements, social media, television, Internet, and films/movies. Mass communication refers to the technology that is used to communicate to a large group, or groups of people in a short time frame. There are other forms of communication. Interpersonal communication is kind of how it sounds. It’s more personal and is usually face-to-face between two or more people (Interpersonal Communication Skills. Now, there can be interpersonal communication that is not face-to-face. For instance four individuals may have to work on a group project for school. They may choose to Facetime one another. Facetime is an application (or app) that people use for video conferencing/chatting using the Internet. Everyone will be able to see one another as they disclose information about their project, but they aren’t necessarily face-to-face. This can also happen through a group chat using the Internet or text messaging. Another form of communication is Intrapersonal. This is done when an individual communicates with themselves usually in their mind. Now, before you think of strapping this person in a jacket that makes them hug themselves and place them in an all-white room think of the last time you had a conversation with yourself to make a decision. Have you ever gone back and forth with yourself to justify why you could eat the last piece of cake and still be on a diet? Maybe you’ll run home from work instead of driving, or maybe something less drastic where you’ll work out three times that week instead of twice? This, my friend, is intrapersonal communication. Being able to reach a large amount of people in a short amount of time is valued especially in society, politics and commerce, and it’s controlled by corporations. The mass-media industry “employs professionals to conceive, produce, promote, and deliver communication products that are specifically designed to meet the goal of attracting large audiences”. These products “may be sold as objects (such as books or digital videodiscs [DVDs]), exhibited for the price of a ticket or subscription (such as movies shown in cinemas or on premium or pay-for-view cable TV channels), or offered at no cash cost to consumers so as to create an audience for paid advertising (such as commercial television or radio broadcasts)”. “Some of the mass media use combinations of these funding sources; for example, most newspapers and magazines are sold directly to the reader but depend on selling advertisements for their profitability”
There are four major functions of mass media. The first is for surveillance. This is to provide information about issues, events and developments in society. The second is correlation. Media must interpret events and issues and ascribe meaning so that individuals understand their roles in society. A term that best fits with correlation is agenda setting, which means the media doesn’t tell you what to think, but what to think about. Media tells you what is and isn’t important and to what degree, but that will be covered in a later chapter. Next is cultural transmission. This is where the media aids the transference of dominant cultures and subcultures from one generation to the next or to immigrants. The last function of mass media is to simply entertain (Pavlik & McIntosh, 2004, p. 24-25). According to Pavlik & McIntosh, 2004, there is a standard, overarching model for mass communication that has been used since the invention of the first printing press. The model has four main points. The first is “communication flow is largely one-way, from sender or source to receiver or audience”. The second, “communication is from one or a few to many”. Third, “communication is anonymous (sources generally do not know their audiences and audience do not know the sources, except at a general level)”. Fourth, “audiences are largely seen as passive recipients of the messages distributed by the media, with little opportunity for feedback and practically no opportunity for immediate feedback or interaction with one another”. So what does this all mean? This model refers to movies/films, books, newspapers, television, radio, or any other form of mass media. It states that mass communication isn’t interactive, audiences and senders are unknown to one another and it can only flow one way. Digital media and convergence (terms that will be covered later in the chapter) of media changes all of that. Consumers aren’t just passive. They are actively participating and not just consuming media; an example of this is through blogs (“a Web site containing the writer’s or group of writers’ own experiences, observations, opinions, etc., and often having images and links to other Web sites”). What about email? It’s possible for me to send a mass email to all of my contacts (a total of 739 people) stating that I am having a Christmas party and that I want everyone to attend. Well, that’s sending a message to a large group of people in a relatively short amount of time (because I type really fast), but the sender (myself) and receivers (my contacts) are not unknown. Examples like this show that the way we use mass media is changing.
Media Convergence
Media convergence is known “broadly as the coming together of computing, telecommunications, and media in a digital environment” (Pavlik & McIntosh, 2004, p. 8). There are three major categories for media convergence. These categories are technological convergence, economic convergence and cultural convergence. The first, technological convergence has to do with traditional media converging into a digital platform. This is referring to traditional media such as print, audio and video converging with digital media. An example of this would be a journalist having to report highlights of a news story on Twitter or conducting a podcast. Journalists sometimes have to be interactive, especially on social media, and not just robots giving information. Technological convergences changes the experience consumers have with traditional media. Another example would be being able to read an e-book on your tablet or Kindle. Economic Convergence is the merging of Internet, or telecommunication companies, with more traditional media companies. An example of this would be Comcast merging with NBC Universal. According to Pavilk & McIntosh, 2004, traditional media companies “have grown fewer and much larger in the past 50 years through mergers and acquisitions” . The last is cultural convergence. This pertains to the beliefs, values and practices shared by a group of people. It is the “process of globalization of media content”. An example of this is if women in Thailand are watching the American show Sex in the City.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The reason for the oppression on the media by the various governments in Nigeria (particularly the past military governments) is because development journalism was originally conceptualised to serve as an ally of the government. Therefore, any medium that goes contrary to the dictate of the government of the day is either frustrated or forced into extinction.
Another problem of the press is the irregular power supply in the country which has made newspaper production very frustrating for the media houses. In order to remain in operation, the media houses are always powered by generators which are extra over-head expenditures for them. The use of generator can also be a challenging task during the period of incessant fuel scarcity in the country; which might lead to partial or total paralysis of the business.
Another crucial problem of the Nigeria media is its urban, elite-centred bias, and it’s almost cynical neglect of the rural areas (Kadiri, 2009). Kadiri stated that the acquisition of modern technologies by these media houses further increases the gap between the urban and the rural news reportage. ‘‘Urban elite class directly or indirectly call the shot for the mass media …their agenda and ideology are often at variance with those of the people who receive prominence in the media’’ (Soola, 2002a:122 ).
The financial constraints of the media houses are also taking their toll on the resources at the disposal of the media practitioners. Lack or inadequate resources at the disposal of the media practitioners is another factor inhibiting their productivity on the reportage of development news. Most journalists in Nigeria are largely under-resourced, with some not even paid in months. The basic resources- Internets, reference books, blogging resources, news search engines etcthat journalists need to carry out their daily activities effectively are not readily available. They are also not exposed to training and re-trainings that most of their counterparts in other advanced countries are constantly undergoing. The working conditions together with inadequate resources make journalist to swing priorities from real development issues to those reports that provide immediate gratifications for the reporter.
Another main challenge that the media have in carrying out their responsibility to society is the issue of ownership and control of the media by government and elite private individuals. Adeyanju (2005) noted that development communication theories, McQuail’s (1983) inclusive, are not valid when it comes to explaining the direction to follow in achieving development. According to Adeyanju (2005) the domination of the lower class by elite media owners exists because the media are operated in a capitalist economic setting where profit maximization is the order. Adeyanju (2005)’s viewpoint is rooted in the much referenced Karl Marx’s position on the mass media. According to Marx (cited in Murdock and Golding, 1977:15)
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The main objective of the study is to find out the impact of mass media on the coverage of government programmes. Specific objectives includes