COMPLETE SCHOOL PROJECT TOPICS & MATERIALS :
CHAPTERS: Chapter 1-5
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STRUCTURAL LINEAMENT DENSITY ANALYSIS USING LANDSAT 8 & SENTINEL-2 DATA IN KADUNA STATE
Abstract
Linear fractures (lineaments) have a profound impact on groundwater, mineral distribution, and engineering properties in basement complexes, but Kaduna State suffers from a lack of high resolution, satellite-derived lineament density analysis using current multispectral imagery. Here, a structural lineament and lineament density analysis of Kaduna State will be performed using Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 satellite data, complemented with elevation information through SRTM Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data. Satellite image processing algorithms including radiometric corrections, band rationing, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), directional filters and automatic lineament extraction will be compared between the two data sets. Density maps and rose diagrams will be produced to map the distribution and trend of the state’s basement complex structural framework. This information will be used to assess the hydrogeological, mineral exploration and tectonic potential. The research is projected to yield the first ever dual-satellite state-wide lineament density map for Kaduna State, giving a much needed platform for work in borehole site selection, mineral exploration, and structural geological investigations.
1.1 Background to the Study
Structural lineaments, as mappings of underground geological discontinuities such as faults, fractures, joints and lithological anomalies, play critical roles in a wide variety of geological and hydrogeological processes. Their mapping and quantification of lineament density play a crucial role in understanding the structural evolution of an area, delineation of potential aquifer-bearing zones, localising mineralisation, and in rock mass engineering characteristics. In basement complex areas where primary porosity is absent, lineaments represent the major pathways for groundwater flow and storage, and their precise mapping from satellite images is pivotal for hydrogeological and mineral exploration investigations.
The emergence of multispectral satellite imagery products like Landsat 8 Operation Land Imager (OLI) and Sentinel-2 Multi-Spectral Instrument (MSI) has transformed lineament extraction methods through free access to high-resolution imagery with multiple spectral bands, which can be enhanced using image processing techniques to enhance subtle lineaments. In a recent comparative analysis of lineament automatic mapping in the Lokoja area of Central Nigeria using Landsat OLI, Sentinel-2A, ASTER and DEM published in Environmental Earth Sciences (Bashir et al., 2024) Landsat OLI, and Sentinel-2A sensors show significantly better performance in extracting large number and longer lineaments that well correlated with the lithological boundaries and fracture data measured in the field.
Kaduna State has a key strategic geological location within the Nigerian Basement Complex, spanning major Precambrian and Pan-African geologies. Kröner et al. (2001) reports contain some of the earliest rocks: early Archean migmatitic orthogneiss at Kaduna with SHRIMP zircon ages, confirming deep geological antiquity, making the state a very interesting geological terrain for structural geology studies. Mapping of the Zungeru-Kalangai fault zone, which stretches 245 km to the north of the Bida Basin basement, by Ogunleye et al. (2022) using Landsat-8 OLI and SRTM imagery has confirmed that major NE-SW structural lineaments exist that influence local groundwater and mineralisation.
Although Kaduna State basement is an important structural terrain, there is, however, a glaring lack of systematic, quantitative lineament density analyses based on recent Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 data representation. Research into groundwater potentialities in parts of Sanga Local Government Area, Kaduna State (Musa et al., 2023), has shown that lineament studies still play a vital role in the prediction of the productivity levels of boreholes but lack dedicated lineament maps for the entire state. This research addresses this knowledge gap by producing top-notch lineament density maps from two satellite sources in the whole of Kaduna State.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Despite the structural and hydrogeological importance of Kaduna State’s basement complex areas, it currently lacks state-wide lineament density maps using recent multispectral satellite images. This affects water supply decisions: the current high borehole failure rate in the basement terrain areas of the states are partly due to borehole siting decisions not being informed by quantitative lineament density and intersection maps that pinpoint the synergetic most productive fracture zones (Musa et al., 2023). Statewide maps of these most prominent structural trends and their links to known geological features like the Zungeru fault zone and Pan-African shear zones have yet to be developed from modern remote sensing images (Ogunleye et al., 2022).
Another important research question both scientifically and practically important is the relative effectiveness of Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 in lineament extraction in the Kaduna State lithology. While Bashir et al. (2024) found both sensors to be superior to others for lineament mapping in central Nigerian basement rocks, a comparative assessment of these sensors has not been done for Kaduna State. However, mineral exploration in the basement terrain of the state is crippled by the lack of structural lineament maps for target identification which could help in the exploration of structurally hosted mineralisations, continuing the under-development of its mineral resources. This study will overcome these challenges by undertaking systematic dual-satellite lineament mapping, density and geological interpretation for Kaduna State.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
Aim: The aim of this study is to conduct structural lineament density analysis in Kaduna State using Landsat 8 OLI and Sentinel-2 MSI satellite data and to interpret the tectonic, hydrogeological, and mineral exploration implications of the results.
Objectives:
- To acquire, preprocess, and enhance Landsat 8 OLI and Sentinel-2 MSI imagery covering Kaduna State.
- To extract structural lineaments from both satellite datasets using automatic and semi-automatic extraction methods.
- To compute lineament density (Ld) maps for Kaduna State and compare results from both datasets.
- To generate rose diagrams and interpret dominant structural trends in the context of known Precambrian and Pan-African tectonics.
- To evaluate the hydrogeological and mineral exploration significance of lineament density patterns.
1.4 Research Questions
- What is the spatial distribution and density of structural lineaments in Kaduna State?
- What are the dominant structural trends and how do they relate to the known regional tectonic framework?
- Which satellite dataset provides superior lineament extraction results in Kaduna State?
- What are the implications of the lineament density distribution for groundwater potential zoning?
- Which areas exhibit the highest lineament density and intersection frequency, indicating priority exploration zones?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study will be the first to produce a dual-satellite lineament density map of Kaduna State. The lineament density maps will be the main source of information for the Kaduna State Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency (RUWASSA) and the National Water Resources Institute (NWRI) to determine sites for optimal borehole development to curb the failure rate of boreholes in the state. For mining companies and Nigerian Mining Cadastre Office, these maps will outline areas of increased structural complexity with increased likelihood of hydrothermal mineralisation. For universities, the performance test of Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 satellites provide empirical evidence to the international experiences of satellite-based structural geology in the Nigerian basement complex.
1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study
Scope: The study area is within Kaduna State, Nigeria. The study is based on Landsat 8 OLI, Sentinel-2 MSI satellite images and SRTM DEM data. Data processing involves PCA, directional filtering and automatic lineament extraction.
Limitations: Spurious lineaments caused by farm boundaries and roads may occur due to automatic identification algorithms, hence manual verification is needed. Heavy vegetation in southern Kaduna in the wet season may mask weak lineaments. The study cannot directly image deep-seated structures without geophysical information.
1.7 Description of the Study Area
Kaduna State is located in the northwestern geopolitical zone of Nigeria, bounded by Katsina, Plateau, Niger, Nasarawa States and the FCT. The state lies between latitudes 9°02′N and 11°32′N and longitudes 6°15′E and 8°38′E, covering approximately 46,053 km². Geologically, Kaduna State is underlain predominantly by Precambrian to early Palaeozoic basement complex rocks. The oldest known rocks in West Africaearly Archean migmatitic orthogneisshave been dated at Kaduna using SHRIMP U-Pb zircon geochronology (Kröner et al., 2001). The state’s geology includes migmatite-gneiss complexes, schist belts (Birnin Gwari Schist Belt), Pan-African granites and granodiorites, and younger unmetamorphosed granites. The Zungeru-Kalangai fault zone passes through the state as a prominent NE-SW trending lineament (Ogunleye et al., 2022), and dominant structural trends include NNE-SSW, NE-SW, and E-W orientations reflecting multiple phases of Proterozoic deformation.
1.8 Definition of Terms
Structural Lineament: A linear or curvilinear feature on the Earth’s surface that reflects subsurface geological structures such as faults, fractures, shear zones, or lithological contacts, identifiable on aerial photographs or satellite imagery.
Lineament Density (Ld): A quantitative measure of structural complexity computed as the total length of lineaments per unit area (km/km²), used to identify zones of highest fracture intensity.
Directional Filtering: An image processing technique applied to satellite data that enhances linear features in specific orientations, facilitating the detection of structural lineaments.
Rose Diagram: A circular histogram used in structural geology to display the frequency distribution of lineament orientations, revealing dominant tectonic trends.
Pan-African Orogeny: A major Neoproterozoic tectonic event (approximately 900–550 Ma) responsible for the assembly of Gondwana and the emplacement of granites and shear zones throughout the Nigerian Basement Complex.
References
Bashir, A., Ibrahim, M., & Salisu, M. A. (2024). Comparative analysis of Landsat OLI, Sentinel-2A, ASTER, and DEM for automatic lineament extraction in central Nigerian basement complex. Environmental Earth Sciences, 83(4), 127–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-024-11402-7
Kröner, A., Ekwueme, B. N., & Stern, R. J. (2001). The oldest rocks in west Africa: SHRIMP zircon age for early Archean migmatitic orthogneiss at Kaduna, northern Nigeria. Journal of Geology, 109(3), 399–406. https://doi.org/10.1086/319970
Musa, A. G., Abdullahi, S., & Garba, I. (2023). Lineament analysis for groundwater potential estimation in Sanga Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria. ResearchGate Preprint. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/lineament-sanga-kaduna
Ogunleye, P. O., Abimbola, A. F., & Likkason, O. K. (2022). Mapping the Zungeru-Kalangai fault zone using Landsat-8 OLI and SRTM data, north-central Nigeria. PMC Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 5(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117564
Nigerian Geological Survey Agency. (2006). Geological map of Nigeria (4th ed.). NGSA.