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INTEGRATION OF GIS AND REMOTE SENSING FOR LINEAMENT EXTRACTION AND GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL MAPPING IN NIGER STATE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Groundwater is the most essential fresh water resource for billions of people globally, especially in semi-arid and basement complex terrains where surface water flow is ephemeral and non-permanent. The UN estimates that groundwater contributes 30% of global fresh water resources and supplies “entirely on groundwater” an estimated 2.5 billion people worldwide (UN-Water, 2022). In many developing countries, groundwater is the lifeblood of domestic and irrigation purposes and therefore must be sustainably developed.

Groundwater scarcity is a critical issue in Nigeria. Nigerian’s population exceeding 200 million people and with an exponential growth rate, relies heavily on groundwater for domestic use as a potably safe water source, especially in North Central and Northern parts of the country. In spite of this, the country’s rate of borehole failures is very high and is often due to poor site selection that ignores subsurface geological features. Insufficient hydrogeological data and exploration techniques still persist in groundwater development across the country.

Niger State, situated in the North Central geopolitical zone of Nigeria, is mainly underlain by crystalline basement rocks that include granites, gneisses, migmatites and schists, with some areas covered by Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of the Bida Basin. The work of Adetona et al. (2024) in the Bosso Local Government Area of Niger State has shown that the occurrence groundwater in the crystalline basement complex is likely to occur along fractures, faults and weathered zones that can be mapped using remote sensing techniques. Water scarcity is a critical issue in the state and the lack of adequate supply of potable water is of great concern to the populace, especially in fast-growing urban areas such as Minna.

Geo-spatial technology, which combines Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS), has evolved worldwide as the fastest and cheapest method of groundwater potential mapping in lieu of traditional slow and costly geophysical surveys. An influential study on groundwater potential mapping using RS, GIS and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) in Bosso LGA of Niger State by Adeyemi et al. (2022) published in Applied Water Science successfully mapped areas of high groundwater potential by creating thematic maps from geology, lineament density, slope, land use/land cover and drainage density. These methods have been found to be more holistic than single-factor surveys as they account for the complexity of groundwater formation in crystalline rocks.

Lineaments, which are surface manifestations of geological features caused by tectonic movements (e.g faults, fractures, joints and so on), are a key factor in groundwater exploration in basement complex formations. Lineaments and their intersections are critical to the occurrence and circulation of groundwater resources in crystalline rocks, and their successful extraction from satellite data is a crucial step towards borehole success, as highlighted by Ashraf et al. (2024) in Environmental Earth Sciences. Today, new generation satellite technologies such as Landsat 8 OLI, Sentinel-2 MSI and SRTM Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) with improved spatial resolution and spectral detail, are providing an excellent opportunity for lineament extraction at regional and state scales.

While substantial progress has been made globally, there is a lack of incorporated GIS-remote sensing based groundwater potential mapping studies in Niger State. Although some geophysics surveys have been carried out, there is no detail state-wide lineament extraction and groundwater potential mapping study using multi-satellite data. This study, therefore, aims to address this gap.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Niger State faces persistent groundwater access challenges stemming from its basement complex geology, which makes groundwater occurrence highly localized and structurally controlled. Several specific problems motivate this study:

• High borehole failure rates across the state due to the absence of systematic pre-drilling structural mapping, leading to significant financial losses for both government agencies and private individuals.
• The absence of a state-scale lineament density map derived from current high-resolution satellite imagery such as Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2, which are necessary for identifying fracture-controlled aquifer zones.
• Inadequate groundwater potential maps that integrate multiple thematic layers including geology, drainage density, slope, land use, and lineament density using GIS-based Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) weighting.
• Lack of spatial data on groundwater potential that can guide policy decisions for water resource infrastructure in rural and peri-urban communities of Niger State.
• Limited application of modern multi-criteria GIS analysis for prioritizing groundwater development zones across the diverse geological terrain of the state.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

Aim: The aim of this study is to integrate GIS and remote sensing technologies for lineament extraction and groundwater potential mapping in Niger State, Nigeria.

Objectives:

1. To extract lineaments from Landsat 8 OLI, Sentinel-2, and SRTM-DEM data using image enhancement and directional filtering techniques.
2. To generate thematic maps of geology, lineament density, drainage density, slope, and land use/land cover for Niger State.
3. To apply the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) in GIS for weighted overlay analysis to delineate groundwater potential zones.
4. To classify and map groundwater potential zones (very high, high, moderate, low, and very low) across the study area.
5. To validate the groundwater potential map using existing borehole yield data in the study area.

1.4 Research Questions

• What is the spatial distribution of lineaments in Niger State as extracted from Landsat 8, Sentinel-2, and SRTM-DEM data?
• What are the principal structural trends controlling groundwater occurrence in the study area?
• How do the integrated thematic layers of geology, lineament density, drainage density, slope, and land use classify the groundwater potential zones of Niger State?
• Which zones of Niger State exhibit the highest groundwater potential based on GIS-AHP weighted overlay analysis?
• How well does the generated groundwater potential map correlate with existing borehole yield data?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study is significant for a number of reasons. For governmental bodies like the Niger State Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency (RUWASSA) and the Federal Ministry of Water Resources, the resulting groundwater potential maps will be important decision-making tools for borehole siting and water supply system design, thereby minimising borehole failures. For communities in Niger State facing water scarcity, especially rural and peri-urban communities, the maps will inform community-specific groundwater development projects.

Environmental policy makers will also benefit from spatial information on lineament density and groundwater potential zones for sustainable land use planning by preserving the ground-water recharge zones. And for scholars, the study adds to the growing body of knowledge on integrated GIS-remote sensing techniques for groundwater exploration in the Nigerian basement complex environment, and can be applied in other states. This study lays the groundwork for future research through its data sets and workflow.

1.6 Study Scope and Limitations

Scope: This study will be conducted in the North Central State of Nigeria, in Niger State; and focuses on the extraction of lineaments from Landsat 8 OLI, Sentinel-2 MSI and SRTM-DEM satellite data. This study also involves thematic mapping of geology, lineament density, drainage density, slope, land use/land cover and soil, and the integration of these layers through GIS AHP weighted overlay technique to generate groundwater potential maps. The research encompasses both basement and Bida Basin, sedimentary areas of Niger State.

Limitations: The research is constrained by the resolution of freely available satellite data (30m of Landsat 8 and 10m of Sentinel-2), which may not resolve very small-scale features. The groundwater potential map will be validated by field data only in areas where borehole yield data is available. Budgetary and practical considerations might limit field validation exercises, especially in remote villages. Moreover, cloud-covered satellite scenes (during the respective wet seasons) may require compositing.

1.7 Description of the Study Area

Niger State is located in the North Central geopolitical zone of Nigeria, bounded by Kebbi State to the northwest, Zamfara State to the north, Kaduna State to the northeast, Kogi State to the southeast, Kwara State to the south, and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja to the east. The state lies between latitudes 8°20′N and 11°30′N and longitudes 3°30′E and 7°20′E, covering a total area of approximately 76,363 km², making it the largest state in Nigeria by land area.

The climate of Niger State is tropical continental (Sudan and Guinea Savanna types), characterized by two distinct seasons: a wet season (May to October) with annual rainfall ranging from 1,100mm to 1,600mm, and a dry season (November to April) influenced by the northeastern Harmattan winds. Mean annual temperatures range from 25°C to 35°C. The vegetation transitions from Guinea Savanna in the south to Sudan Savanna in the north, with gallery forests along river valleys.

The drainage system of Niger State is dominated by the Niger and Kaduna Rivers, which are major tributaries draining across the state. The Kainji, Jebba, and Shiroro dams are located within the state, representing major hydroelectric infrastructure. Secondary drainage systems include the Gbako, Chanchaga, and Lavun Rivers.

Geologically, Niger State is underlain by two major lithological domains. The basement complex, which occupies the southern and central portions, comprises Precambrian to Palaeozoic rocks including migmatite-gneiss complexes, schist belts (notably the Zungeru and Kushaka schist belts), and Pan-African granites and granodiorites. Research by Adetona et al. (2024) confirms that lineaments in this terrain are predominantly oriented in the NE-SW direction. The northern and eastern portions of the state are underlain by Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of the Bida Basin, comprising sandstones, shales, and clays. Groundwater in the basement complex occurs in weathered and fractured zones, while the Bida Basin hosts sandstone aquifers with generally higher yields.

1.8 Definition of Terms

• Lineament: A mappable simple or composite linear feature of a surface whose parts are aligned in a rectilinear or slightly curvilinear relationship, reflecting subsurface phenomena such as faults, fractures, or joints (O’Leary et al., 1976).
• Lineament Density: The ratio of the total cumulative length of all lineaments within a defined area to that area, expressed in km/km² and used as a proxy for fracture intensity and groundwater potential.
• Groundwater Potential Zone: A subsurface zone capable of yielding economic quantities of water to wells or springs, defined by favorable geological and hydrogeological conditions.
• Remote Sensing (RS): The science of obtaining information about objects or areas from a distance, typically using satellite or airborne sensors that detect electromagnetic radiation.
• Geographic Information System (GIS): A computer-based system for capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying spatially referenced data.
• Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP): A structured multi-criteria decision-making technique that assigns relative weights to different thematic layers based on their importance in influencing a target variable such as groundwater occurrence.
• Thematic Map: A map that emphasizes a particular theme or subject area, such as geology, drainage density, or land use, used as a layer in GIS analysis.
• Digital Elevation Model (DEM): A digital representation of the terrain surface, used in remote sensing to generate hillshade images for lineament extraction and to compute slope and drainage parameters.
• Weighted Overlay Analysis: A GIS spatial analysis technique that combines multiple thematic raster layers by assigning weights proportional to each layer’s influence on the output variable.