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EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ALMAJIRI INTEGRATION REFORMS ON LITERACY AND VOCATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION IN NORTHERN NIGERIA.

Abstract

The Almajiri system, a traditional Qur’anic education model prevalent in Northern Nigeria, has evolved from a respected avenue for Islamic scholarship into a significant contributor to the region’s high number of out-of-school children, limited literacy, and inadequate vocational preparation. This thesis evaluates the effectiveness of integration reforms such as the 2012 Federal Almajiri Integration Programme, subsequent state initiatives, and the 2023 establishment of the National Commission for Almajiri and Out-of-School Children Education (NCAOOSCE) in enhancing literacy (reading, writing, numeracy) and vocational skills acquisition. A mixed-methods design was employed, involving surveys of 250 Almajiri learners and 60 instructors in integrated schools across selected Northern states, semi-structured interviews with 30 stakeholders (including community leaders and policymakers), and content analysis of policy documents and reports. Results reveal partial success in literacy gains through curriculum blending of Qur’anic studies with basic formal subjects, yet vocational components remain underdeveloped due to funding shortages, teacher capacity gaps, infrastructure deficits, and implementation inconsistencies. Vocational proposals, including trades like tailoring, mechanics, and innovative low-resource options such as rabbit farming, demonstrate promise for economic self-reliance but require stronger integration. Recommendations emphasize sustained federal-state collaboration, standardized curricula with mandatory vocational modules, teacher training, community engagement, and monitoring frameworks to align reforms with broader goals of inclusive education and poverty reduction in Northern Nigeria.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Education is a system worldwide, and it is a cornerstone of personal empowerment, social mobility, and national growth; however, the many traditional and informal models are now faced with significant adaptation challenges in the modern world that is dominated by globalisation, economic volatility, and the need to be functionally literate and have employable skills (UNESCO, 2023). The legacy of a crisis in out-of-school children has been evident in sub-Saharan Africa but with officials estimating an estimated 98 million abducted students in the area and Nigeria being the most disproportionate it is a dire state of affairs that warrants the critical convergence of cultural practises, poverty, and policy interventions (UNESCO, n.d.). Nigeria is a typical example of such a dilemma because the number of children out of school reaches about 18.3 million—10.2 million at the most basic level and 8.1 million at the junior secondary one level. Nigeria is a classic example of this predicament with an estimated population of out-of-school reaching about 18.3 million children 10.2 at the primary level and 8.1 at the junior secondary level, which takes a significant portion of the world

In Northern Nigeria, the Almajiri system is a traditionally important system of traditional Islamic education that has been playing a major role in creating such an out-of-school phenomenon. The system, which became known as the Sokaya system, started in the 11th-century in the Kanem-Borno Empire and was reinforced in the 19th-century in the Sokoto Caliphate under Sheikh Uthman Dan Fodio, was initially a system through which young boys would go to study with a Mallam (teacher) in a place called tsangaya (Qur-an boarding schools), which was backed by communal resources and usually supplemented by agricultural or trading work (Umar, 2025; Abubakar et al It also focused on moral, intellectual, and religious education, hence generating the scholars who were part of the government and the spread of knowledge in pre-colonial Islamic states (Suleiman, 2025).

The colonial interference has upset this model, by giving importance to Western education, not assisting the Islamic institutions, and creating economic marginalisation that undermined communal funds processes (Okonkwo, 2022). Later economic forces after independence, urbanisation, population increase, and poverty in 1980s-1990s further changed many of these tsangaya into a child migration and child begging destinations, with Almajiri children, of poor rural Hausa-Fulani origin, commonly deprived of access to secular education, numeracy and vocational training (Fahm, 2021; Umar, 2025). Modern estimates tell of millions of vulnerable children working in the system with malnutrition, exploitation and disease, and the threat of radicalization, hence perpetuating the circles of poverty and insecurity in Northern Nigeria (UNICEF, 2022; Sakaba et al., 2023).

When addressing these issues, as well as adhering to the importance of Universal Basic Education (UBE) and Sustainable Development Goal 4 (inclusive and equitable quality education), successive governments have sought integration reforms. The Federal Almajiri Integration Programme, a landmark programme, which was opened in 2012 with the help of President Goodluck Jonathan, created alternative model schools that integrated Qur’anic education with formal education (English, mathematics, science) and job-related skills, serving the purpose of enrolling out-of-school children and helping them become self-reliant (Teke et al., 2022). Later initiatives involve state-level plans, curriculum differentiation, and the 2023 establishment of the National Commission for Almajiri and Out-of-School Children Education (NCAOOSCE) that aims to instill some literacy, numeracy, digital literacy, vocational training, and civic education in Almajiri structures without altering the cultural flavor (Federal Ministry of Education, 2025). In 2025, further national policy endorsements also align the curricula and focus on skills attainment (NCAOOSCE, 2025).

In spite of these efforts, the academic assessments demonstrate contradictory results: along with the moderate literacy gains in mixed schools, the ongoing obstacles to the development of vocational skills are observed which can be explained by poor infrastructure, shortage of teachers, funding instability, and resistance of communities (Teke et al., 2022; Sakaba et al., 2023). The economy is potentially empowered through innovative suggestions, including the introduction of rabbit farming as a low-resource entrepreneurship (Sakaba et al., 2023). In this way, the broad context of this paper is to place the Almajiri reforms into the international discussions on how to reinvent traditional education systems to bridge literacy disparities and skill shortages in marginalised settings, and to assess their particular effects on the development of literacy and vocational training in Northern Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The integration reforms have been active more than ten years; however, there is still a lack of empirical research about their effectiveness, which is subject to controversy. Numerous integrated schools also face a lack of sufficient funding, unequal delivery, and fewer vocational focus, which altogether lead to the continuous literacy gap and poor employability among graduates (Teke et al., 2022). The problem of street begging remains, as does vulnerability, which is one of the problems that cause wider socio-economic and security issues in the region (Umar, 2025). In the absence of thorough evaluation, the reforms can become inefficient, this is why the need to analyse the results in the sphere of literacy and professional skills acquisition.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The general objective is to evaluate the effectiveness of Almajiri integration reforms on literacy and vocational skills acquisition in Northern Nigeria. Specific objectives are to:

1. Assess the impact of integration reforms on literacy levels among Almajiri students in integrated schools.
2. Examine the extent of vocational skills acquisition within reformed Almajiri curricula.
3. Identify implementation challenges and prospects of the reforms.
4. Propose recommendations for enhancing literacy and vocational outcomes.

1.4 Research Questions

1. To what extent have Almajiri integration reforms improved literacy skills among participants?
2. How effective are the vocational training components in reformed schools for skill acquisition and self-reliance?
3. What are the major challenges hindering the reforms’ success?
4. What policy and practical measures can optimize future effectiveness?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This research contributes empirical insights to policymakers, educators, and stakeholders by highlighting strengths and weaknesses of existing reforms. It supports evidence-based adjustments to the UBE-Almajiri framework, potentially reducing out-of-school children, enhancing employability, and promoting sustainable development in Northern Nigeria. The findings also inform NGOs and international partners on scalable vocational models, such as livestock integration, while adding to academic literature on inclusive Islamic education reform.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The study is delimited to integrated Almajiri schools in the North West Geo-Political Zone (e.g., Kano, Sokoto, Kaduna states), focusing on literacy and vocational skills outcomes from 2012 onward. It excludes non-integrated tsangaya and other geopolitical zones.

1.7 Limitations of the Study

Access to remote schools and respondent reluctance due to cultural sensitivities may limit data depth. Findings are context-specific and may not generalize nationwide without further validation. Resource constraints restricted the sample size.

1.8 Definition of Terms

• Almajiri: A child or youth enrolled in traditional Qur’anic schooling, often migrating to study under a Mallam.
• Integration Reforms: Government policies blending Qur’anic education with formal literacy, numeracy, and vocational curricula in model schools.
• Literacy: Functional abilities in reading, writing, and basic numeracy as per UBE standards.
• Vocational Skills Acquisition: Practical training in trades or entrepreneurship leading to income-generating competencies.

REFERENCES Abubakar, M. S., Usman, M. M., Muhammad, A., Abubakar, F. U., Mahmud, M. M., Ahmad, J. B., Usman, I. S., Abubakar, A., & Garba, S. S. (2025). Review on the historical development and challenges faced by Almajiri educational system in Northern Nigeria. Saudi Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 10(11), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.36348/sjhss.2025.v10i11.004

Amuda, Y. J. (2021). Enhancing national progress and sustainable economic development among Al-Majiri children in Northern Nigeria. Heliyon, 7(9), e08066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08066

Sakaba, A. M., Sikiru, A. B., Garba, M. G., Umar, D. A. Y., Harande, I. S., Muhammad, I. R., & Magaji, A. S. (2023). Rabbit farming: A means of mitigating Almajiri system in Northern Nigeria – A review. ASRIC Journal on Social Sciences and Humanities, 4(1), 246–253. https://asric.africa/social-sciences

Teke, A. M., Khalid, M., & Katami, N. A. (2022). Problems and prospects of Almajiri integration programme in North West Geo-Political Zone, Nigeria. International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies, 10(1), 14-25. ERIC EJ1329379.