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DESIGN OF FLOOD-RESILIENT LOW-COST HOUSING USING ELEVATED FOUNDATIONS AND PERMEABLE MATERIALS IN FLOOD-PRONE AREAS OF EDO STATE.
ABSTRACT
Flooding poses a severe and recurrent threat to communities in Edo State, Nigeria, particularly in Benin City and surrounding low-lying areas, where climate change, rapid urbanization, poor drainage, and impervious surfaces intensify pluvial and riverine inundation. Low-cost housing prevalent among vulnerable populations typically features ground-level foundations and impermeable materials, resulting in frequent structural damage, water ingress, foundation erosion, health hazards from stagnant water and disease vectors, prolonged displacement, and substantial economic losses from repeated repairs. This study proposes the design of flood-resilient low-cost housing using elevated foundations (plinths, piles, stilts, or columns to raise habitable floors above flood levels) and permeable materials (pervious concrete, porous pavers, gravel surfaces) to reduce runoff, promote infiltration, and enhance structural durability and habitability. The research assesses flood risk and vulnerability in selected flood-prone zones of Edo State, evaluates limitations of conventional low-cost designs, investigates the suitability and local applicability of elevated and permeable systems, develops context-specific design prototypes, and recommends implementation strategies alongside policy measures for adoption. Employing site assessments, geospatial analysis, stakeholder consultations, material testing, and design modeling, the study focuses on residential typologies from 2020 to 2026. Expected outcomes include affordable, locally adaptable resilient housing solutions that minimize damage, lower recovery costs, protect public health, reduce landfill burden from debris, and support sustainable urban development in flood-vulnerable regions of Edo State.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Flooding remains one of the most recurrent and devastating natural disasters in Nigeria, particularly in low-lying urban and peri-urban regions of the southern states, where it is exacerbated by climate change, unplanned urbanization, deforestation, poor drainage infrastructure, and encroachment on natural watercourses. In recent decades, intensified rainfall patterns, rising temperatures, and erratic precipitation attributable to global climate change have increased the frequency, duration, and severity of flood events across the country. These phenomena manifest in pluvial (rain-induced) and riverine flooding, leading to widespread submersion of communities, destruction of infrastructure, loss of livelihoods, displacement of populations, and heightened vulnerability among low-income groups residing in informal or inadequately constructed settlements.
Edo State, located in southern Nigeria, experiences pronounced flood vulnerability, with the southern portion including Benin City and surrounding areas classified as high to extremely severe risk zones. Geospatial analyses indicate that approximately 26% of the state falls under high flood risk and 9% under extremely severe risk, driven by low elevation, gentle slopes, high topographic wetness index, proximity to rivers and drainage channels, extensive impervious surfaces from urban sprawl, and inadequate drainage capacity (Omoregie et al., 2025). Benin City, the state capital with a population exceeding 2 million and rapid growth fueled by rural-urban migration, economic activities, and infrastructural projects, contends with annual flooding exacerbated by heavy seasonal rainfall, blocked or insufficient drainage systems, improper solid waste disposal, construction on floodplains and natural waterways, and reduced permeable land cover (Ilenre, 2025; Akpan & Udoh, 2020).
Climate change has further amplified these risks in Benin City through indicators such as early cessation or delayed onset of rainy seasons, excessive temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, and increased precipitation intensity. Major impacts include seasonal inundation resulting in submergence of buildings, damage to infrastructure (roads, bridges, utilities), loss of lives and properties, transportation disruptions, reduced agricultural productivity, health issues from waterborne diseases and vector proliferation (e.g., malaria, diarrhea), and economic hardships from repair costs and lost income (Ilenre, 2025). Low-cost housing, which predominates in flood-prone informal settlements and peri-urban extensions, typically features ground-level concrete slab foundations, impermeable surfaces (e.g., conventional concrete floors and pavements), and substandard materials that offer minimal resistance to water ingress, foundation erosion, structural cracking, prolonged dampness, and accelerated deterioration.
Conventional construction practices in these areas fail to account for flood dynamics, resulting in repeated damage cycles that perpetuate poverty, force temporary relocations, strain household finances, and undermine community resilience. Globally and regionally, flood-resilient design strategies have emerged to address such vulnerabilities, including elevated foundations (raising habitable floors on plinths, piles, stilts, or columns above projected flood levels) and permeable materials (pervious concrete, porous pavers, gravel bases, or permeable pavements) that promote infiltration, reduce surface runoff, mitigate peak flows, and support groundwater recharge (Ogunmakinde et al., 2025; Ilenre, 2025). These approaches integrate with sustainable drainage systems (SuDS), green building principles, and low-cost adaptations using locally available materials, making them suitable for resource-constrained settings.
In Edo State’s flood-prone contexts, where low-income households face disproportionate exposure, incorporating elevated foundations and permeable materials into low-cost housing design presents a practical, affordable pathway to enhance structural durability, minimize direct flood contact, reduce recovery burdens, protect occupant health, and foster long-term adaptation. This study focuses on developing such resilient housing designs tailored to local topographic, climatic, material, and socioeconomic conditions in Edo State, contributing to sustainable urban development amid escalating climate risks.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Flood-prone areas across Edo State, particularly in Benin City and Edo South, experience recurrent and increasingly severe inundation events that damage residential structures, displace communities, compromise water quality, disrupt critical services, and impose substantial reconstruction burdens on low-income populations. Traditional low-cost housing in these regions utilizes ground-level foundations and impermeable surfaces, making structures vulnerable to water infiltration, foundation erosion, structural cracking, mold proliferation, persistent moisture retention, and accelerated material deterioration. These conditions elevate public health risks through stagnant water accumulation and vector-borne disease proliferation (Ilenre, 2025; Omoregie et al., 2025).
Persistent flood vulnerability stems from topographic disadvantages, inadequate drainage infrastructure, urban surface impermeability, and climate-intensified precipitation patterns. However, adoption of flood-resilient construction practices remains limited due to perceived financial barriers, insufficient technical knowledge among local builders and residents, weak regulatory oversight, dependence on conventional low-cost materials, and lack of region-specific architectural standards. These systemic shortcomings perpetuate cyclical property damage, economic instability, poverty entrenchment, and strained disaster response capacities.
Absent cost-effective, geographically appropriate designs incorporating raised foundations and permeable building solutions, low-cost housing in Edo State’s flood-prone zones will remain prone to recurrent failures, obstruct sustainable urban development, and inadequately protect at-risk communities from escalating climate-related flood hazards.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
- Assess flood risk and vulnerability in selected flood-prone areas of Edo State.
- Evaluate conventional low-cost housing designs and their limitations against flooding.
- Investigate suitability of elevated foundations and permeable materials for resilient housing.
- Develop design prototypes for flood-resilient low-cost housing.
- Recommend implementation strategies and policy measures for adoption.
1.4 Research Questions
- What is the extent of flood risk and vulnerability in selected flood-prone areas of Edo State?
- What are the limitations of conventional low-cost housing designs in flood-prone conditions?
- How suitable are elevated foundations and permeable materials for resilient low-cost housing?
- What design prototypes can enhance flood resilience in low-cost housing?
- What implementation strategies and policy measures support widespread adoption?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This research delivers practical, locally adapted designs for flood-resilient low-cost housing, bridging critical gaps in affordable climate adaptation for vulnerable communities in Edo State. By prioritizing elevated foundations and permeable materials, it proposes cost-effective measures to reduce structural vulnerability, lower repair and recovery expenses, safeguard occupant health and safety, and improve long-term habitability in high-risk zones.
The outcomes inform architects, builders, developers, housing agencies, and Edo State authorities in embedding resilience into public and private housing initiatives, supporting national disaster risk reduction frameworks and sustainable development priorities. It encourages use of indigenous materials, local skill enhancement in adaptive techniques, and scalable integration of green infrastructure elements.
Academically, the study enriches literature on climate-adaptive built environments in sub-Saharan Africa, providing comparative value for flood-vulnerable developing regions facing similar challenges.
1.6 Scope of the Study
The study concentrates on selected flood-prone locations in Edo State, Nigeria, with primary emphasis on Benin City and adjacent peri-urban zones affected by pluvial and riverine flooding. It targets low-cost residential housing typologies, incorporating elevated foundations and permeable materials, for projects or conditions from 2020 to 2026. The scope encompasses flood risk evaluation, analysis of existing designs, material and technique assessment, prototype formulation, and policy recommendations, excluding high-rise, commercial, or non-residential developments. Constraints may include site accessibility, data limitations, and stakeholder variability, with focus on realistic, locally implementable solutions.
1.7 Definition of Terms
- Flood-Resilient Housing: Structures engineered to resist, accommodate, or recover swiftly from flooding with limited damage, utilizing preventive and adaptive features to maintain functionality and safety.
- Elevated Foundations: Structural supports—plinths, piles, stilts, columns, or raised platforms—that lift habitable floors above anticipated floodwater levels to prevent immersion and erosion.
- Permeable Materials: Porous or pervious construction elements (e.g., permeable concrete, pavers, gravel, or porous surfaces) that enable water infiltration, attenuate runoff, and facilitate natural drainage and recharge.
- Low-Cost Housing: Economically accessible residential units for low-income groups, employing affordable local materials, simplified construction methods, and basic standards to ensure safety, durability, and habitability.
- Flood-Prone Areas: Geographic zones with elevated susceptibility to recurrent flooding due to topographic, hydrological, climatic, and land-use factors.
References
Akpan, E. E., & Udoh, P. U. (2020). Urban expansion and flood risk in Benin City, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Management, 256, 109964.
Ilenre, A. E. (2025). The impact of climate change induced flooding in Benin-City, Edo State, Nigeria. Irish Journal of Environment and Earth Sciences. https://aspjournals.org/Journals/index.php/ijees/article/view/1368
Ogunmakinde, O. E., et al. (2025). Innovative strategies to prevent flooding in buildings and infrastructure in Nigeria. International Journal of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment, 16(5), 688–706. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJDRBE-10-2024-0132/full/html
Omoregie et al. (2025). Evaluation of potentially susceptible flooding areas leveraging geospatial technology with multicriteria decision analysis in Edo State, Nigeria. Natural Hazards Research, 5, 109–122. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S266659212400057X