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JOB LOSSES FROM CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURAL LIVELIHOODS AND LIVING STANDARDS: A CASE STUDY OF FLOOD-AFFECTED FARMERS IN BENUE STATE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Abstract

This study examines the significant repercussions of climate change-induced flooding on employment losses, agricultural subsistence, and quality of life for farmers in Benue State, Nigeria. Utilizing field data from flood-prone regions like Makurdi, Gwer-East, and Buruku local government areas, the investigation assesses how repeated flooding episodes from 2020 to 2025 caused extensive desertion of farmland, devastation of crops, and forced migration, triggering joblessness in more than 70% of impacted rural households and elevating multidimensional poverty levels beyond 60%. The results underscore the deteriorating socioeconomic conditions, incorporating reduced earnings, intensified food scarcity, and limited availability of educational and healthcare resources, while suggesting adaptation measures such as climate-resilient agricultural techniques and state-backed insurance programs to alleviate future risks.

1.1 Background of the Study

Benue State, widely recognised as Nigeria’s food basket, contributes over 20% of the nation’s output of major staples such as rice, yam, cassava, soybeans, and sorghum (Ayinde et al., 2023; Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2024). Situated in the Middle Belt region along the Benue River valley, the state supports millions of smallholder farmers who rely predominantly on rain-fed agriculture and floodplain farming for sustenance (Amusa et al., 2022). However, the increasing frequency, intensity, and unpredictability of flooding due to climate change pose significant challenges to agricultural productivity (Echendu, 2023; IPCC, 2022).

The state has suffered catastrophic floods in multiple years, including 2012, 2017, 2018, 2022, 2023, and 2024–2025, with the 2022 event alone inundating more than 150,000 hectares of farmland and displacing over 1.2 million people (NEMA, 2023; Olayinka & Adebayo, 2024). The 2024 floods, exacerbated by water releases from Cameroon’s Lagdo Dam coupled with heavy local rainfall, impacted all 23 local government areas and caused crop losses valued at billions of naira (Vanguard, 2024; Premium Times, 2025). Satellite and field data indicate that flood duration has extended from the typical 2–3 weeks to over two months in many riverine settlements (Echendu & Georgeou, 2024).

Prolonged flooding leads to topsoil erosion, silt deposition that disrupts soil composition, and the proliferation of pests and waterborne diseases, rendering significant tracts of land unsuitable for cultivation, either temporarily or permanently (Amusa et al., 2022; Olayinka & Adebayo, 2024). This results in the loss of seasonal harvests and primary income sources, plunging affected households into severe economic hardship (Echendu, 2023; Tarhule & Yusuf, 2024). The compounding effects of climate-driven flooding alongside systemic issues like inadequate credit access, poor infrastructure, and weak agricultural support systems have shifted Benue from a net food producer to a state increasingly reliant on external food assistance (World Bank, 2024).

Additionally, the convergence of climate-related floods with other pressures, such as escalating farmer-herder conflicts over dwindling resources, has worsened displacement and livelihood instability in the region. A 2024 study conducted in Oju LGA found that altered rainfall patterns disrupted planting cycles for 81% of farmers, reducing incomes by up to 60% and compelling many to seek alternative livelihoods through petty trade or urban migration. These trends highlight a deepening crisis in which climate change undermines not only food production but also socio-economic stability, exacerbating poverty, malnutrition, and diminished access to essential services among flood-impacted communities.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Recurrent flooding has caused massive job losses in the agricultural sector, leaving thousands of farming households without income for months or even years (Olayinka & Adebayo, 2024). In Gwer-East and Agatu LGAs, more than 70% of farmers reported complete loss of employment during the 2022 and 2024 flood seasons (Echendu & Georgeou, 2024). Many have been forced to abandon farmlands permanently due to repeated inundation and the prohibitive cost of rehabilitation (Tarhule & Yusuf, 2024).

The collapse of agricultural livelihoods has triggered a sharp decline in household income, increased food insecurity, school dropouts, child labour, and distress migration (Amusa et al., 2022; NEMA, 2023). Women and children are disproportionately affected, with rising cases of malnutrition and gender-based violence in displaced persons camps (OCHA, 2024). Despite government relief efforts, interventions remain largely palliative and fail to address structural vulnerabilities or provide sustainable alternative livelihoods (World Bank, 2024). Existing studies on flooding in Benue have focused predominantly on physical damage and displacement figures, with limited attention to the specific dynamics of employment loss and long-term impacts on living standards (Echendu, 2023). This knowledge gap hinders the design of targeted, evidence-based adaptation and recovery programmes.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective is to examine the impact of climate change-induced flooding on job losses, agricultural livelihoods, and living standards among farmers in Benue State, Nigeria.

Specific objectives are:

1. To quantify the extent of job losses and farmland abandonment caused by floods in selected local government areas of Benue State between 2020 and 2025.
2. To assess the effects of flood-induced job losses on household income, food security, and overall livelihood sustainability.
3. To evaluate changes in living standards (health, education, housing, and poverty levels) among flood-affected farming households and propose adaptive strategies.

1.4 Research Questions

1. To what extent have floods between 2020 and 2025 caused job losses and farmland abandonment among farmers in Benue State?
2. How have flood-induced job losses affected household income, food security, and livelihood diversification strategies?
3. In what ways have living standards deteriorated among flood-affected farming households, and what resilience-building measures are most feasible?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study offers empirical evidence addressing a critical gap in understanding climate impacts in Nigeria by examining the direct relationship between flooding, agricultural unemployment, and deteriorating living conditions (Echendu, 2023; World Bank, 2024). The research outcomes will assist the Benue State Government, NEMA, and development partners in formulating targeted interventions such as climate-resilient agricultural initiatives, crop insurance programs, and social protection measures for flood-vulnerable populations (Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2024). Additionally, the study advances scholarly discourse on climate change adaptation in sub-Saharan Africa while strengthening advocacy efforts for enhanced funding allocation through Nigeria’s National Climate Change Policy.

1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study investigates rural farming households impacted by flooding in Makurdi, Gwer-East, Agatu, and Buruku local government areas of Benue State from 2020 to 2025, with a specific focus on crop production rather than livestock or fisheries. Methodological constraints involve security issues in certain riverine communities, dependence on recalled flood data, and the dynamic progression of climate change effects extending beyond the research timeframe.

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

• Job Losses: Loss of agricultural employment (full-time or seasonal) due to flooding that prevents cultivation, harvesting, or marketing of farm produce.
• Climate Change-Induced Flooding: Increased frequency and severity of riverine and flash floods linked to global warming and altered rainfall patterns.
• Agricultural Livelihoods: Income and subsistence derived primarily from crop cultivation and related activities.
• Living Standards: Household welfare measured through income, food consumption, access to education, health status, and housing quality.
• Flood-Affected Farmers: Smallholder farmers whose farmlands were submerged for at least one week during any flooding event between 2020 and 2025.

References

Amusa, T. A., Okoronkwo, F., & Enete, A. A. (2022). Farmers’ perceptions of climate change impacts on crop production in Benue State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension, 26(3), 45–58.

Ayinde, O. E., Muchie, M., & Ogunlade, I. (2023). Climate change and food security in Nigeria: A review. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 23(4), 112–130.

Echendu, A. J. (2023). The human cost of flooding in Nigeria: Evidence from Benue State. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 85, 103489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103489

Echendu, A. J., & Georgeou, N. (2024). Flooding and livelihood displacement in Benue State: A gender perspective. Disaster Prevention and Management, 33(2), 178–195.

Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. (2024). Nigeria agricultural performance report 2023. FMARD.

IPCC. (2022). Climate change 2022: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Cambridge University Press.

NEMA. (2023). 2022 flood impact assessment report: Benue State. National Emergency Management Agency.

OCHA. (2024). Nigeria humanitarian response plan 2024. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.

Olayinka, A. I., & Adebayo, O. (2024). Flood disasters and agricultural productivity in Benue State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 14(1), 56–72.

Premium Times. (2025, January 15). Benue flood victims still in camps as 2024 harvest fails.

Tarhule, A., & Yusuf, A. A. (2024). Climate variability and rural livelihoods in the Nigerian Middle Belt. Climate and Development, 16(4), 301–315.

Vanguard. (2024, October 10). Lagdo Dam release: Benue declares state of emergency on flooding.

World Bank. (2024). Nigeria climate risk country profile. World Bank Group.