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KNOWLEDGE OF CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF CHILD ABUSE AMONG PARENTS IN BAUCHI STATE, NIGERIA

 

Abstract

 

Literature has revealed that there is child abuse and neglect in Nigeria including Bauchi State. The study therefore examined Knowledge of causes and consequences of Child Abuse among parents in Bauchi State, Nigeria. To achieve these purpose seventeen research objectives were posed with seventeen corresponding research questions and seven null hypotheses were postulated and tested at

.05 level of significance. The correlation research design was utilized for this study. The population for the study consisted of all secondary school students in Bauchi State (550,421) and 20 experts from the field of health education, measurement and evaluation and psychologists from the departments of psychology, measurement and evaluation and Physical and Health Education of the Universities of Nigeria, Nsukka. A sample size of 1549 secondary school students was drawn from the population using a multi-stage sampling procedure with appropriate technique was used. All the 20 experts were used for the study. Three types of instruments were used for this study. First, the Demographic Predictors of Child Abuse and Neglect Questionnaire (KCCCAAP), secondly, Child Abuse and Neglect Focus Group Discussion (CANFGD) Guide and thirdly, Child Abuse and Neglect Preventive Measures Questionnaire (CANPMQ). Two sets of the instruments KCCCAAP and CANPMQ were subjected to validation by five experts from the Department of Health and Physical Education, Psychology, and Measurement and Evaluation University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The cronbach Alpha method of reliability index of DeCANQ was .88 and CANPMQ reliability index was .86. Research questions 1 and 2 were answered using frequencies and percentages while research question 17 was answered using mean while research questions 3-16 were answered using multiple-regression analysis. The ANOVA statistic was used to test hypotheses 1-7 at .05 level of significance. The findings reveals that Parents physically abused their children by always pushing (11. 2%), kicking (8.7%); sometimes beating (38.4%), slapping (30.9%). Parents sexually abuse their children by always fondling (7.1%), robbing breast against their body (5.3%). Parents emotionally abuse their children by always showing lack of acceptance (40.9%), lack of love (11.1%). Parents physically neglected their children by always not providing good shelter (71.8%), enough food (68.6%); sometimes not giving shoes (25.2%), clothes (23.3%). Relationship between age of parents and child abuse was very low (r = -0.095; P = 0.045), age and child neglect was very low (r = 0.118, P = 0.003), preventive measures of CAN were considered appropriate with mean 2.00-2.49 (SD =.459 – .681), 2.15 – 2.35 (SD = .608 – .684) and 2.23 – 2.25 (SD = .578-.605). Fathers’ age (P-value = .004), mothers’ age (P-value = 0.002), mothers’ occupation (P-value = .012) and parity (P-value = .001) were significant predictors of physical child abuse, fathers’ age (P-value = .003), fathers’ age (P-value =.002), mothers’ age (P-value = .000) and marital status (P-value =.037) were significant predictors of educational child neglect, fathers’ age (P-value = .000) and mothers’ age (P-value = .001) were significant predictors of medical child neglect. It was recommended that the Bauchi State may collaboration with Ministry of Youth and Sport and lend logistic and manpower support to schools in the implementation of the Child Abuse and Neglect Preventive Measures in schools. Ministry of Education under the auspices of Agency for Mass Education should educate parents on the effect or consequences of child abuse and neglect by organizing workshops and seminars for parents by health educators.

 

CHAPTER ONE

 

Introduction

 

Background to the Study

 

Child abuse and neglect (CAN) is a serious public health problem and occurs in varying proportions or magnitudes, resulting to burden imposed on children by parents or adults. Most adults often impose their wishes on children without any recourse to their feelings. This flagrant imposition more often than not instilled so much fear in the minds of children. World wide, approximately 5 children die every day because of child abuse and neglect (National Children’s Alliance, 2014). They further reported that in 2010, about 1,537 children died of abuse or neglect, 79.4 per cent were under the age of 18 years. Statistics indicated that, there were an estimated 896,000 substantiated cases of child abuse and neglect in the United States of America (USA) in 2004. Cases involving approximately 4.5 million children were referred to Child Protective Services throughout the country each year for investigation into allegations of abuse and neglect. Of these reported cases 30 per cent were abuse and neglect of children (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services-USDHHS, 2008). World Health Organization and International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect-WHO/ISPCAN (2006) and USDHHS (2008) revealed that child abuse and neglect have been and continues to be a major public health problem in the United States. This therefore portends that it is a problem that is not perculiar to the USA alone, but other countries of the world.

In Rome, until quite recently, children had very few rights with regard to protection from abuse and neglect by their parents. However, child abuse and neglect continued to be perpetuated in many parts of communities in Rome (Ministry of Women and Child Development-Rome-MWCDR, 2014). These suggest that child abuse and neglect is still prevalent in some parts of developed nations of the world.

In Africa, it has been reported that 35 per cent of the children in West and Central Africa are estimated to suffer from child abuse and neglect. There are, however, wide variations among individual countries in the region (UNICEF, 2009). The incidence of child abuse and neglect in Cape Verde and Sao Tome and Principe, for example, is very low, at 3 per cent and 8 per cent, respectively. In contrast, six countries (Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Mali, Nigeria and Togo) have child abuse and neglect rates of more than 40 per cent, and more than half the children’s population in Chad experienced child abuse and neglect. In many African countries, the child abuse and neglect rate in rural areas is at least twice as high as that in urban areas and abuse and neglect in educational settings leads to high rates of school dropouts and low rates of school enrolment in this region, especially among girls (UNICEF, 2009).

In Nigeria, child abuse and neglect by parents seems to be relatively high. Studies conducted by (UNICEF, 2012) in separate surveys on prevalence of sex and class of secondary school students, child abuse and neglect by teachers indicated that both boys and girls had experienced diverse forms of abuse and neglect in schools by teachers and other staff in the school. In Edo State, it was reported that emotional abuse was very frequently among girls (Okoza, Aluede

 

• Ojugo, 2011). In addition, Shukura (2012) affirmed that pupils’ abuse and neglect in schools were enormous. Similarly, a study in Bauchi State showed that 59.8 per cent of schoolgirls were neglected from being enrolled in schools (Targeted States High Impact Project- TSHIP, 2012). From the foregoing statistics, there are evidences of child abuse and neglect in the developed and the developing nations of the World including Nigeria and Bauchi State in particular, however, this study is poised to identify demographic variables that are capable of predicting child abuse and neglect.

The Nigerian Child Right Act bill was passed into law in July 2003, it received the assent of the then President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, in September 2003 and was promulgated as the Child Rights Act 2003. Report showed that there is lack of enforcement of the act by law makers and judiciary (UNICEF, 2011). This may imply that countries that have promulgated Child Right Act seem to experience fewer incidences of child abuse and neglect than those that have not and there are variations in the abuse of children based on the prevailing socio-demographic or cultural factors that may enhance the thriving trend of child abuse and neglect.

In Bauchi State, early marriage is a norm, coupled with customary laws and cultural practices such as fosterage, many girls are particularly vulnerable to child protection deficits. This group of vulnerable persons is commonly abused and neglected (Olanrewaju, 2014). The question now is what demographic factors or attributes of parents can be used to predict child abuse and neglect in Bauchi State. This suggests the need to conduct a study on demographic predictors of child abuse and neglect in Bauchi State, becomes pertinent.

Child abuse is a potential risk among young and old people alike. Child abuse is a multi-dimensional phenomenon that encompasses a broad range of behaviours, events, and circumstances, unlike random acts of violence or exploitation (National Academies of Sciences- NAS, 2009). NAS described child abuse as all intentional actions that cause harm or create a serious risk or harm to a child by a caregiver or other person who stands in a trusted relationship to the child. According to National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children-NSPCC (2014), child abuse is any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child. In this study, NAS (2009) definition of child abuse is adopted as the operational definition. Child abuse is multi facetted phenomenon. Child abuse is of different forms, namely: physical, sexual and psychological or emotional (Shukura, 2012).

 

Children experienced abuses that include child physical abuse. Child physical abuse refers to non-accidental bodily injury that has been inflicted on a child (Epstein, 2001). It can also be defined as denying the victim (child) of some functions necessary to life (U.S Department of Justice, 2007). Studies such as Yu (2007), U.S Department of Justice (2007) and Arizona Coalition Against Domestic Violence -ACADV (2010), indicated that child physical abuse has different forms including physical aggression (hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, restraining, slapping, throwing objects), or threats thereof; controlling or domineering; intimidation; stalking; and passive/covert abuse and deprivation. In addition, NSPCC (2014) identified burning, drowning, hitting, poisoning, scalding, shaking, suffocating and throwing object at a child as physical abuse. The severity of injuries may range from relatively minor (bruises and lacerations) to moderate (scarring and abrasions) and severe (burns, sprains or fractured bones). In this study, physical child abuse refers to any act that is intentional, which leads to harm or injury to the child. In many cases, these forms of physical child abuses result because parents see children as a tool that can be manipulated the way they like without considering the right of these children, therefore perpetrate child abuse and neglect on these vulnerable children. From the above information, children fall victim of different types of child abuse irrespective of sex. One of such types of child abuse is child sexual abuse.

 

Child sexual abuse refers to the victimization of a child by sexual activities. UNICEF (2009) hold, that sexual abuse is non-consensual sexual contact of any kind with a child. ACADV (2010) defined child sexual abuse as any situation in which force is used to obtain participation in unwanted sexual activity. NSPCC (2014) posited that sexual abuse is any act that forces a child or young person to participate in sexual activities, regardless of whether the child is aware of what is going on. In this study, UNICEF (2009) definition is adopted as operational definition of sexual child abuse. Sexual abuse activities may include assault by penetration, such as rape or oral sex, and non-penetrative sexual activities, such as touching outside of clothing, rubbing, kissing, and masturbating (NSPCC, 2014). These can sometimes interfer with child’s emotional stability, which is refers to emotional child abuse.

 

Every human being expresses emotional feelings including children. Emotional child abuse is any undesirable or unpleasant act inflicted on children by a caregiver or any person who can potentially make them feel embarrassed (Ba- Saddik & Hattab, 2012). Child emotional abuse is also defined as saying things and behaving in a way that conveys to the child that he or she is inadequate, unloved, worthless, or only valued as far as the other person’s needs are concerned (NSPCC, 2014). In this study, child emotional abuse refers to the parent’s or caregiver’s inappropriate acts toward a child that potentially make them feel embarrassed. ACADV (2010) identified child emotional abuse acts to include conflicting actions or statements which are designed to confuse and create insecurity in the victim, ridiculing what they say, silencing them, mocking, shouting, calling names and threatening. In addition, Price-Robertson, Bromfield and Richardson (2013) identified five forms of child emotional abuse as: rejection, isolation, terrorizing, ignoring and corrupting forms of child emotional abuse. Another core concept in the study is child neglect.

Parents sometimes failed in providing the needs of their children, even when they have the means to do so. Child neglect is defined as a type of ill-treatment related to the failure to provide needed, age-appropriate care (Greer, 2014). Consequently, Smith and Segal (2014) defined child neglect as failure to provide for a child’s basic needs, whether it is adequate food, clothing, hygiene, or supervision. It may then be seen as ill-treatment of child and unable to provide child needs. Child neglect is the failure of parent or caregiver to provide for the child’s basic needs such as clothing, medical care, love, school uniform among others.

 

Child neglect may cut across every stratum of a giving population. UNICEF (2009) noted that 25 per cent of children in Nigeria, including orphans, were neglected and suffered from inadequate nutrition, poor access to health care, and infrequent school attendance. Child neglect is the least studied form of violence against children. This is due to multiple factors including the difficulty in defining and documenting neglect in children (Perry, Colwell & Schick, 2009). These factors may lead children to exhibit different characteristic in life’s endeavours.

 

Child neglect manifests in various forms. Neglect may include: improper feeding of the child, poor clothing of the child, lack of adequate or comfortable shelter for the child, abandonment or excommunication of the child from home, exposure of the child to emotional danger or harm, vulnerability of the child to physical danger or harm and child’s lack of access to medical treatment or care (NSPCC, 2014). Once children are in school, health personnel often notice indicators of child neglect such as poor hygiene, weight loss, inadequate medical care, or frequent absenteeism from school (Greer, 2014).The forms of child neglect is of categories.

 

Child neglect is categorized into four forms, namely: physical, emotional, educational and medical neglect (Perry, Colwell & Schick, 2009; Polek & Wach, 2013; Smith & Segal, 2014). Greer (2014) and Croft (2014) separately affirmed the four forms of child neglect which include, physical, emotional, educational, and medical neglect which are mostly experienced by children. In this study, physical, emotional, educational and medical forms of child neglect were examined.

 

Physical child neglect is an act of inflicting pains on the vulnerable child. Hala and Robinson (2002) posited that physical child neglect accounts for the majority of cases of maltreatment. Physical child neglect can also be seen as failure of caretakers to provide for the basic needs (Smith

 

• Segal, 2014). Physical child neglect refers to the inability of parents or caregiver to provide for the child’s safety as well as his or her physical needs. Smith and Segal further gave examples to include, non provision of education and clothing, others includes refusal or delay in obtaining health care, abandonment, forcing the child to leave the home or refusal to allow the child back home and inadequate supervision. Physical child neglect involves not providing appropriate clothing, food and cleanliness of living conditions. Child physical neglect can severely impact a child’s development by causing failure to thrive (prosper), malnutrition; serious illnesses; physical harm in the form of cuts, bruises and burns due to lack of supervision and a lifetime of low self-esteem (Hala & Robinson, 2002). Perry, Colwell and Schick (2009) added, that often in combination with emotional neglect, child physical neglect can severely impact on development by causing failure to thrive, malnutrition, untreated serious infections (diseases; e.g., pneumonia), physical harm in the form of cuts, bruises, and burns due to lack of supervision and can affect psychological disposition of a child.

 

A child can also be neglected emotionally. Child’s emotional neglect has been defined by Hala and Robinson (2002) as actions or extreme spousal abuse in the child’s presence. Moran (2009) referred to child emotional neglect as a condition when a caregiver is being unresponsive to a child’s basic emotional needs. Perry, Colwell and Schick (2009) posited that child emotional neglect include actions such as refusal or failure to provide needed psychological care, constant belittling, and withholding of affection. Child emotional neglect refers to condition when a caregiver is being unresponsive to a child’s basic emotional needs such as love, warm, and lack of provision cloths. Stressing the above definition, Smith and Segal (2014) explained that emotional form of child neglect may include lack of provision of love, affection and comfort by a caregiver. This pattern of behaviour can lead to poor self-image, alcohol or drug abuse, destructive behaviour and even suicide. Severe neglect of infants can result in the infant failing to grow and thrive and may even lead to infant death. This implies that the consequences of child emotional neglect may prevent the children from attaining their educational potentials. Therefore there is the need to address the emotional needs of a child in order to harnessed education goals.

 

When educational opportunities are provided to children, it enables them developed wholistically. Child educational neglect is defined as the failure to provide a child with experiences for necessary growth and development, such as not sending a child to school or giving him or her education (Turney & Tanner, 2005). Child education neglect is also defined as the inability of caregiver to provide a stimulating environment for the child (Moran, 2009). In this study, child educational neglect refers to caregiver’s failure to provide appropriate educational opportunities for the child. Hala and Robinson (2002) posited that educational neglect manifests when a child is allowed to engage in chronic truancy, is of mandatory school age but not enrolled in school or receiving the needed special educational training. They further noted that, educational neglect can lead to under achievement in acquiring the necessary basic skills, dropping out of school and or undergoing continuously disruptive behaviour. In addition, Perry, Colwell and Schick (2009) stated that educational neglect can lead to under achievement in acquiring necessary basic skills, dropping out of school, and continually disruptive, which seem to be common among children of school age in Bauchi State. The implication of this is that if some parents can not take care of the educational needs of a child, medical bill of the child may also be difficult to pay.

Failure to provide appropriate health care for a child (although financially able to do so), thus placing the child at risk of being seriously disabled or disfigured or dying. National Institute of Health (2006) defined medical child neglect as the inability of caregivers to meet children’s basic health care needs. In this study, the definition by National Institute of Health (2006) on medical child neglect is adopted and used. Medical neglect of child is insecurity to the health of a child. Hala and Robinson (2002) believed that in some cases, a parent or caretaker will withhold traditional medical care during the practice of religious beliefs. Further more, concern is warranted not only when a parent refuses medical care for a child in an emergency or for an acute illness, but also when a parent ignores medical recommendations for a child with a treatable chronic disease or disability, resulting in frequent hospitalizations or significant deterioration (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2007). Child’s medical neglect can result in poor overall health and compounded medical problems. Secondary school students may be exposed to different forms of child neglect such as physical, emotional, educational and medical because they are active at this period, this is for the fact that they are undergoing series of developmental changes. It is, therefore, necessary to pay attention to them, with the aim of helping them out of their problems and for them to feel that their right is protected.

 

Child abuse is all intentional actions that cause harm or create a serious risk or harm to a child by a caregiver or other person who stands in a trusted relationship to the child while child neglect is the failure of parent or caregiver to provide for the child’s basic needs. These concepts were used in investigating the occurrence and perpetuation of this maltreatment by parents among secondary school in Bauchi State, Nigeria. However, establishing the proportion of child abuse is important.

 

The proportion of abuse and neglect against children by parents may be difficult to determine because so much of it happens in secret, some victims find it very difficult to expose the perpetrators and many of these cases may not have been reported (WHO/ISPCAN, 2006). Proportion of child abuse and neglect is the number of occurrence or p erpetuation of the act. Houghton (2009) also viewed proportion as number of occurrence of problems in a given population at a specific time. In this study, proportion is the number of occurrences of child abuse and neglect among secondary school students that constitute the subject of the study. Although, fear has made children accept abuse and neglect as an inevitable part of life, because some abuse and neglect is unexpected and isolated (United Nations, 2005). Certain groups of children are particularly vulnerable to abuse and neglect, they include children with disabilities, children belonging to minority groups, children living on the streets, adolescents in conflict with the law, refugees and displaced children. Often children who face abuse and neglect or witness it remain silent (United Nations Children Education Fund-UNICEF, 2009). Such cases may not even be reported. This worrisome and unprecedented trend is more profound in developing nations of Africa including sub-Saharan Africa, where most of the cases are not reported (UNICEF, 2009). In the absence of extensive child abuse and neglect sentinel (old fashioned) studies, no one is sure of the accurate rate of child abuse and neglect perpetration in developing nations of Africa including sub-Saharan Africa (UNICEF, 2009), where most of the abuse and neglect cases where not reported especially in relationship to children.

 

Children, world over, are seen and considered as God’s (nature) gift to humanity. Ikechebelu, Udigwe, Ezechukwu, Ndinechi and Joe–Ikechebelu (2008) defined a child as human beings between the stages of birth to puberty. UNICEF-Nigeria (2011) defined a child as a person below the age of 18 years. In this study, a child is any person in secondary school in the area of study. Another senerio in the North–East Nigeria is that children are used as mere bait by the boko-haram sect to draw the government’s attention or as barricade of self defense during military offensive attacks, for instance based on observation; girls and boys are forced to join the sect in carrying out their devilish act against their wish. Children within the age of 10-20 years are important in investigating child abuse and neglect, for the fact that they are at the receiving end. Perpetration of child abuse and neglect can be influenced by demographic variables, therefore demographic variables that relate parents will be used to predict or foretell the occurrence of child abuse and neglect by parents in Bauchi State.

 

Demographic may be implicated in the perpetration of child abuse and neglect. Demographic include: gender, age, location, death rate, birth rate, marital status, occupation, educational attainment, academic level, parity and religion (Anderson, 2009). Adalio (2010) defined demographic as the interdisciplinary study of human populations (draws extensively from related disciplines: sociology, economics, statistics, history, political science, anthropology, psychology, public health and environmental sciences). Park (2010) also defined demographic as the science of study of human population. Demographic in this study refer to the attributes or characteristics that define vividly the children’s population in Bauchi State in relation to abuse and neglect. In this study, variables, factors, attributes and characteristics are used interchangeably.

 

Demographic factors, attributes or characteristics include sex, race, religion, age, socioeconomic index, and occupation. This study is interested in the distribution of population in space and their characteristics or attributes. In addition, Anderson (2009) mentioned some demographic factors or attributes to include: age, parentage, physical condition, ethnicity, occupation, civil position, giving the size, birth, marriage, death, migrations, economic conditions, statistics of crime, illegitimacy, suicide; levels of education; and social status. Clipart (2012) has shown a relationship between these factors and child abuse and neglect. In this context, demographic attributes of age, religious affiliation, academic level, location, marital status, parity and occupation, were identified for predicting or forecasting the occurrence of child abuse and neglect in Bauchi State. Oladipo (2012) investigated gender, religious affiliation, institution of learning and academic level as factors predicting sexual risk susceptibility among university undergraduates drawn from two Universities in South-Western Nigeria. Female gender was predictive of membership in the predominately sexually abused class and child protection status was predictive of membership in all abuse classes compared to the non-abused class. From the above information, demographic variables or factors have been used in predicting problems that relates to public health.

 

Age is important when investigating predictors, it varies with individuals. Studies have identified a link between age and involvement with child protective services (CPS), in those African American caregivers had more reports of child abuse and neglect occurrence than European-American and Latino caregivers (Berger, 2005). Malik (2010) in determinants of child abuse in Pakistani families, demographic variables age of parents, there was no significant relationship between socioeconomic class and use of physical abuse against children. Age of parent along side their marital status is relevant in determing child abuse and neglect.

 

Marital status of parents is a very important factor in predicting child abuse and neglect. Schaeffer et al. (2005) stated that poor marital adjustment, dissatisfaction with social support networks, and low family cohesion predicted child abuse potential for mothers but not for fathers. Marital dissatisfaction and poor social support have been associated with child maltreatment in numerous studies examining mothers.Concerning parents’ marital status, only pupils with divorced parents were significantly more likely to experienced emotional abuse (OR = 2.20; CI: 1.01-4.79) (Ba-saddik et al. 2012). Study of this nature examined the role of life events, social support, and marital satisfaction in the prediction of father’s child maltreatment is needed to clarify these apparent gender differences. It will be discussed well when religion is used as a guide to moral attainment.

 

Religion is a factor that inculcates discipline in individuals, but when moral instruction by religion is not appropriately used people especially parents abuse children in the name of religious practice. Malik (2007) argued that the roots for the use of force and violence as a disciplining practice that lead to abuse and neglect may also be ingrained in the religious and legal institutions. Religion is one of the distinctive variables that appear to be linked with the issue of child abuse which also lead children to face discrimination by the parents. It is a general practice that mothers prefer sons to daughters and fathers show gentle attitude towards daughters. Parents with good educational background may want to avoid child abuse and neglect.

 

Level of educational attainment of parents may foretell the occurrence of maltreatment in a family. Children with highly educated mothers reported less child abuse as compared to the children with less educated mothers. On the other hand, the high education levels of fathers play a protective role against pupils’ emotional abuse (OR = .64; 95% CI: .46-.90) (Ba-saddik et al., 2012). A cross tabulations were used to establish relationships between educational level as these pertained to people believing that CSA was a major problem. There was a positive relationship between sex and educational level of the respondents and attitudes toward domestic violence as the margin of error was within the 95 per cent confidence level (Rohner, Melendez, & Krimer-Rickaby, 2008). Therefore, level of educational attainment is capable of predicting child abuse and neglect, however, may depend on urban to rural locations.

 

Parents who lived in both urban and rural can perpetrate child abuse and neglect. Location as indicated by Myles (2006) and WHO (2001) is an environmental factor which could be associated with child abuse and neglect. In area were access to medical services is difficult, health problem are on increase. Also access to school by children seems to be difficult which result to school neglect. Families with low or poor economic background may neglect taking children to hospital, and because of the distance to health facility parent be very difficult to visit with their children. The location of parent may determine the benefit they may drive from their occupation.

 

Occupation refers to the work place or job that influenced parents income that helps in inproving the living condition of the family. Nayak (2012) assessed low income and little education have shown to be strong predictors of a range of physical child abuse and mental health problems, ranging from respiratory viruses, arthritis, coronary disease, and schizophrenia. These may be due to environmental conditions in their workplace, or in the case of mental illnesses, may be the entire cause of that person’s social predicament to begin with which may equally lead them to perpetuate child abuse and neglect at home (Werner, et.al, 2007). Parents, who are organized and have a good occupation to lean on, will want to determine the number of children they want to have and caretered for in a family.

 

Parity is the number of children in a family. The larger the family the more is expected of the parent’s responsibility. Malik (2010) posed that abuse is related to the family size (number of children in a family), due to greater number of children parents especially mothers feel frustrated and overwhelmed which might lead to child abuse. The effect of belonging to a large family on child abuse has never been investigated thoroughly by the researchers, although it was considered that large families are far more common among the poor, socially and culturally deprived families. Therefore, studying demographic variables as predictors of child abuse and neglect by parent in Bauchi State becomes justified.

 

Predictor is any attribute or characteristic that show what will happen in the future. Collins (2005) posited that predictor is a fact or data point that can be used to foretell an outcome. In other words, to predict means to state, tell about, or make known in advance about a given phenomenon especially on the basis of special knowledge. Similarly, Clipart (2012) defined predictor as information that supports a probabilistic estimate of future event or happenings about something in advance by means of special knowledge or inference. Special Knowledge is to connect parents and caregivers to individuals with special needs to service providers that are skilled, compassionate and dedicated about working with them through social networking utility (Russe, 2014). In this study, predictor refers to the use of potential attributes or characteristics to indicate or foretell the occurrence of child abuse and neglect by parents among secondary school in Bauchi State. Examples of predictors in any given population may include: gender (male or female), marital status (married, single, divorced, separated, widowed) and other variables such as age, socioeconomic status (rich or poor) and residential location (urban or rural). Thus, demographic variables such as age, religious affiliation, level of education, location, marital status, parity and occupation were examined. Gall, Gall and Borg (2007) posited that the rationale for using predictors include: acquiring knowledge about factors that predict studies; guiding the selection of students who will be successful in particular educational setting; improving instrument for predicting studies and identifying students who are likely to be unsuccessful so that prevention programmes can be instituted. The present study examined factors or attributes that predicted child abuse and neglect in Bauchi State Nigeria.

 

Identifying and addressing the predictors of child abuse and neglect at appropriate points in child’s development is important for prompt prevention. Information on predictors of child abuse and neglect can help determine child abuse and neglect prevention and in making valid policies for its reduction (Hunter & Robertson, 2012). The information was obtained more appropriately from the children. The respondents of this study were the children whose acts are perpetrated by the parents, caregivers, foster parents, teachers and other older persons. Children used in this study were of secondary school age, it was expected that they could read and comprehend and even explain facts based on experience perpetrated by parents. The rationale for selecting children as respondents was because parents are reluctant to admit abuse or neglect and difficulties involved in accessing child protective services-CPS administrative databases which result in underestimated rates of abuse and neglect by parents (Chaffin & valle, 2003). Moreso, children at the secondary school age are at their different phases of developmental changes, and see themselves as almost adults, which lead to a conflict with parents and other older persons. In addition, children of secondary age are at the receiving end; they experience, feel the impact and above all suffer the consequences of child abuse and neglect. However, parents were part of those who provided information on the quantitative data.

 

Parent is defined by Legal Service Society (2004) as a man or women presumed to be a child’s biological father. Also, parent is referred to as care taker of offspring of their own species (Leigh, 2011). Parent in this study are people who (i.e., biological or non-biological) take care of children who are of secondary school age in Bauchi State. Parent may not be biologically related to their children. Adoptive parents are those who nurture and raise the offspring of biological parents, but can take care of children and protect them from child abuse and neglect. Investigating the variables of age, religious affiliation, level of education, location, marital status, parity and occupation on child abuse and neglect perpetration by parents will provide a viable platform for proffering suitable solution, which will be aimed at combating or preventing this bizarre phenomenon among children in Bauchi State and Nigeria in general.

 

Preventive is target at stopping problem from occurring among individuals or groups. Preventive is coordinated action seeking to forestall predictable problems, to protect existing states of health and to promote desired potentialities in individuals and groups in their physical and socio-cultural settings over time (Bloom, 1996). Similarly, preventive refers to actions that make something impossible or very difficult to happen. In this study, preventive refers to the systematic, coordinate actions or plans taken by health personnel, social workers and others to reduce, delay or eliminate child abuse and neglect in society especially in Bauchi state, Nigeria.

 

Measures may be actions that are intended to achieve a particular purpose, for instance, a actions taken to improve employment opportunity in a country, actions taken to improve the child health (immunization). Botvin and Dusenbury (1989) defined measures as a programme or model initiated to prevent or reduce undesirable behaviours such as abuse among various target populations in society. A measure is the process of planning something or putting a plan into operation in a skilled way to achieve a particular goal (Hornby, 2006). A measure in this study refers to programmes which are designed and initiated against child abuse and neglect in the study area. Therefore, preventive measures means, carefully and specifically selected protective, promotive and rehabilitative measures designed to reduce or eliminate or eradicate child abuse and neglect in Bauchi State, Nigeria. There are several types of measures which may be necessary and effective to prevent child abuse and neglect in society. This include: primary, secondary and tertiary measures (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2007).

 

Primary preventive activities are directed at the general population and attempt to stop child abuse and neglect before it occurs. All members of the community have access to and may benefit from these services. Primary preventive activities with a universal focus seek to raise the awareness of the general public, service providers, and decision-makers about the scope and problems associated with child abuse and neglect (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2007). Furthermore, it helps in public awareness campaigns that provide information on how and where to report suspected child abuse and neglect in society even in Bauchi State, Nigeria.

 

Secondary preventive activities with a high-risk focus are offered to populations that have one or more risk factors associated with child maltreatment, such as poverty, parental substance abuse, young parental age, parental mental health concerns, and parental or child disabilities (WHO and International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, 2006). Programmes may target services for communities or neighborhoods that have a high incidence of any or all of these risk factors (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2007). Approaches to preventive programmes that focus on high-risk populations might include: parent education programmes located in high schools, focusing on teen parents.

 

Tertiary preventive activities focus on families where child abuse and neglect has ever occurred (indicated) and seek to reduce the negative consequences of the child abuse and neglect and to prevent its recurrence. These preventive programmes may include services such as: intensive family preservative services with trained mental health counselors that are available to families 24 hours per day for a short period of time (e.g., 6 to 8 weeks). Therefore, primary, secondary and tertiary preventive were examined and is to be applied at the appropriate level where the problem occurs or portential risk with the intention of preventive measures taken against child abuse and neglect. Some theories and model can be applied to explain child abuse and neglect by parents.

 

This study is anchored on three theories. The Developmental-Ecological Model (DEM) was propounded by Brofenbrenner in 1977. Developmental-Ecological Model assumes that risk factors for physical child abuse are organized around three major conceptual domains: (1) the developmental-psychological, (2) immediate and (3) broader domain. With reference to this study, this theory assisted to investigate the influence of variables such as age, religious affiliation, level of education, location, marital status parity and occupation that interact and predict child abuse and neglect by parents; The Caregiver Stress Theory (CST) was developed in 1976 by Callista Roy. Caregiver stress theory suggests that stressors on the caregiver cause the caregiver to abuse the child. Factors potential of caregiver or parent stress include (a) motivation for care giving, (b) lack of supportive services, (c) lack of coping skills, (d) lack of resources or respite, (e) isolation of the victim, and (f) outside stressors (example, job losses). The CST suggests that stressors on the caregiver cause the caregiver to abuse the child (Bergeron, 2001). The CST would be to provide knowledge to caregivers regarding the factors that can stress caregiver especially when handling issues that concern children and adolescents, which may prevent care givers from abusing and neglecting children; and Cumulative Risk Model (CRM), was propounded by Appleyard, Egeland, van Dulmen and Sroufe in 2005. The cumulative risk model assumes that (1) the more the risk factors are endorsed, irrespective of their nature, the higher the potential for negative outcomes. As risk factors typically co-occur, the cumulative risk model investigates how specific risk factors function in the context of one another (Appleyard, Egeland, van Dulmen, & Sroufe, 2005). If applied to this study, CRM equiped caregivers with knowledge so as to predict an increase in behaviour problems during adolescence. This helps to adopt measures of preventing child abuse and neglect potential in Bauchi State. Child abuse and neglect like any other problem of public health significance is preventable.

 

Bauchi State is located in the North-Eastern Nigeria and is characterized by urban and rural areas. The main types of occupation in Bauchi State are agriculture or farming and trading. However, Bauchi State is plagued by many socioeconomic problems. Farmers’ children are fully integrated in farming activities (Torimiro, 2009). Children were given out by parents as domestic servant and their education being neglected, many children take up to street for trading or hawking, while many have becomed “almajeri” (street children). Child prostitution and child trafficking are also prevalent in Bauchi State (Ebigbo, 2003). Furthermore, the current spate of sectarian violence in the North-East also exposes school children, orphans and vulnerable children to abuse and neglect.

 

There are studies on child abuse and neglect in Nigeria including Bauchi State. A report from UNICEF (2012) indicated that children from aged five to fourteen years, 29 per cent are involved in child labour in Nigeria, including Bauchi State. Parents in Bauchi State give out their daughters for marriage as early as nine years, send boys for “Almajiris” (street children) as early as 3years and neglect circular education, beating of children in prayer houses in the name of deliverance among others. This is worrisome. These can lead to adverse effects on the child safety, health and moral development of the child. Literature has revealed that there is child abuse and neglect in Nigeria and Bauchi State in particular. However, demographic factors or characteristics that were used to predict child abuse and neglect have not been identified. It is against this background that the study was designed to identify demographic factors or characteristic to predict perpetration of child abuse and neglect by parents and proffers preventive measures in Bauchi State.

 

Statement of the Problem

 

In Nigeria, Child Rights Act- CRA 2003 incorporates all the rights and responsibilities of children; consolidates all laws relating to children into a single law; and specifies the duties and obligations of government, parents and other authorities, organizations and bodies. Some of the basic provisions include: provision for freedom from discrimination on the grounds of belonging to a particular community or ethnic group, place of origin, sex, religion, the circumstances of birth, disability, deprivation or political opinion. It also states that the dignity of the child shall be respected at all times. No Nigerian child shall be subjected to physical, mental, emotional injury, abuse, neglect, maltreatment, torture, inhuman or degrading punishment, attacks on their honor or reputation. Every Nigerian child is entitled to rest, leisure and enjoyment of the best attainable state of physical, mental and spiritual health. The act provides for medical and health care, prohibited betrothal and early marriage, tattoos or marks as well as female genital mutilation are all punishable offences under the Act. It also prohibts exposure of children to pornographic materials, trafficking of children, abduction, forced or exploitative labour: including employment of children as domestic help outside their own home or family environment, buying, selling, hiring or otherwise dealing with children for purpose of begging, hawking and prostitution. The Act mandates parents, guardians, institutions and authorities in whose care children are placed to provide the necessary guidance, education and training to enable the children to live up to expected responsibilities.

Regrettably, it was observed that parents in Bauchi State still send children to hawk, farm for longer period of the day while girls are given out for early marriage, and children are treated with herbs when they fall sick instead of going to the health facilities for proper diagnosis and treatment. Children are forced to abandon western education for quaranic education (meaning boko haram) and so on. They also faced diverse forms of abuses and neglects such as physical abuse (including corporal punishment), sexual abuse, emotional abuse, educational neglect, medical neglect, physical neglect and emotional neglect in most of the communities in Bauchi State. Parents regard these as means or acceptable ways of instilling discipline in children. Literature has also revealed that there is child abuse and neglect in Nigeria including Bauchi State.

However, there is the need to investigate some demographic factors or characteristics that are capable of predicting child abuse and neglect in Bauchi State. The questions therefore are: what demographic factors are capable of predicting child abuse in Bauchi State? What preventive measures could be used against child abuse and neglect in Bauchi State? This prompted the researcher to investigate demographic predictors of parental child abuse and neglect and measures to prevent it in Bauchi State.

 

Purpose of the Study

 

The purpose of this study is to investigate demographic predictors of child abuse and neglect and formulate preventive measures against its occurrence. Specifically, the study seeks to investigate:

 

1. The proportion of children abused (physical, sexual and emotional) by parents in Bauchi State;
2. Proportion of children neglected (physical, emotional, education and medical) by parents in Bauchi State;
3. Age of parents as a predictors of child abuse (CA) in Bauchi State;
4. Age of parents as a predictors of child neglect (CN) in Bauchi State;
5. Marital status of parents as a predictors of child abuse in Bauchi State;
6. Marital status of parents as a predictors of child neglect in Bauchi State;
7. Religious affiliation of parents as a predictors of child abuse in Bauchi State;
8. Religious affiliation of parents as a predictors of child neglect in Bauchi State;
9. Level of education of parents as a predictors of child abuse in Buachi State;
10. Level of education of parents as a predictors of child neglect in Buachi State;
11. Location of parents as a predictors of child abuse in Bauchi State;
12. Location of parents as a predictors of child neglect in Bauchi State;
13. Occupation of parents as a predictors of child abuse in Bauchi State;
14. Occupation of parents as a predictors of child neglect in Bauchi State;
15. Parity of parents as a predictors of child abuse in Bauchi State;
16. Parity of parents as a predictors of child neglect in Bauchi State;
17. Preventive measures against child abuse and neglect in Bauchi State.

 

Research Questions

 

1. What is the proportion of children abused (physical, sexual and emotional) by parents in Bauchi State?
2. What is the proportion of children neglected (physical, emotional, education and medical) by parents in Bauchi State?
3. What is the relationship between age of parents and child abuse?
4. What is the relationship between age of parents and child neglect?
5. What is the relationship between marital status of parents and child abuse?
6. What is the relationship between marital status of parents and child neglect?
7. What is the relationship between religious affiliation of parents and child abuse?
8. What is the relationship between religious affiliation of parents and child neglect?
9. What is the relationship between level of education of parents and child abuse?
10. What is the relationship between level of education of parents and child neglect?
11. What is the relationship between location of parents and child abuse?
12. What is the relationship between location of parents and child neglect?
13. What is the relationship between occupation of parents and child abuse?
14. What is the relationship between occupation of parents and child neglect?
15. What is the relationship between parity of parents and child abuse?
16. What is the relationship between parity of parents and child neglect?
17. What is the preventive measure against child abuse and neglect?

 

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were postulated to guide the present study. Each null hypothesis was tested at .05 level of significance at the appropriate degree of freedom.

1. Demographic variables (age, marital status, religious affiliation, level of education, location, occupation and parity) are not significant predictors of physical child abuse in Bauchi State.
2. Demographic variables (age, marital status, religious affiliation, level of education, location, occupation and parity) are not significant predictors of sexual child abuse in Bauchi State.
3. Demographic variables (age, marital status, religious affiliation, level of education, location, occupation and parity) are not significant predictors of emotional child abuse.
4. Demographic variables (age, marital status, religious affiliation, level of education, location, occupation and parity) are not significant predictors of physical child neglect.
5. Demographic variables (age, marital status, religious affiliation, level of education, location, occupation and parity) are not significant predictors of emotional child neglect.
6. Demographic variables (age, marital status, religious affiliation, level of education, location, occupation and parity) are not significant predictors of educational child neglect.
7. Demographic variables (age, marital status, religious affiliation, level of education, location, occupation and parity) are not significant predictors of medical child neglect.